LEC 02/14

EDF 211/ LECTURER TWO: FEBRURARY 25^TH 2020

THE METHODS AND CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY

 METHODS OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY

            a. Critical Method

The term ‘critical’ is derived from a Greek verb Krinein meaning to judge. It involves subjecting of values, facts, principles, conversations and assumptions; usually taken for granted to severe questioning. This is meant to encourage honesty of thought. It seeks to protect man from fanaticism and hypocrisy, intolerance and dogmatism, slogans and ideologies in order to liberate man from narrow mindedness. This method is also called the Socratic Method. It is liberating and constructive in the sense that it seeks to evaluate, to judge things in the light of clear and distinct ideas.

            b.    Analytical Method (The Rational Method)

It emphasized the need for logical and systematic thinking. Its greatly interested in logic being the art of correct reasoning. It consists of analysis and synthesis. Analysis method has to do with breaking issued into parts and by the power of systematic and logical thinking in order to arrive at a clear understanding. Such thinking must not be haphazard or confusing; it should be clear making the necessary distinctions separating clearly what is essential, what matters from what is accidental and of less importance.  It classified as primarily analytical thinking because it cuts an issue into parts, analyses concepts and statements. In addition, the method seeks to analyse concepts, statements and the language used in different contexts in order to clarify and justify meanings.Philosophical synthesis has to do with putting together the various parts of an idea to form a whole. It is used to complement philosophical analysis. Where else analysis breaks an issue into small parts, synthesis brings together the parts. The aim is to see something in its totality, see the inter-relationship and the overall framework. The limitation with the rational method is its sole reliance on mind as the source of knowledge neglecting ordinary sense experiences. Rationalists are thus regarded as idealists who do not live in the real world.

           

            c. The Speculative Method (Creativity)

Also called the metaphysical function. To speculate is to make an intelligent/rational guess. It endeavors to challenge the human mind as far as possible, to its ultimate limits in trying  to understand what is apparently incomprehensible. Man is not satisfied with knowing what happens to him, he also wants to know why. Basic issues of concern in life include; death, suffering happiness. There is no simple answer and many people explain or clarify them in religious terms believing religion will give the final answer.  Philosophers however prefer to explain these issues by use of human reason; they want to challenge the human mind as far as possible in trying to understand the incomprehensible. Speculation is very well utilized in a research hypothesis.

            d. Phenomenological Method

The term phenomenology originated from the Greek word ‘phenomenon’ meaning appearance and logia meaning knowledge. It designates the description or study of appearance especially if the appearances are sustained and penetrating. It considers the actual staring point of investigation to be the actual things as they appear, in their essential reality through experience. Things will appear different from one person to another. A philosopher’s concern is not the differences but to discover the underlying meaning and thus arrive at a deeper understanding of phenomena. By reflecting on an everyday human experience e.g. Of pain, joy, fear, frustration, a philosopher is able to explain the experience in concrete terms indicating in which manner the experience affects one’s life, whole being or existence. It involves a non-biased, non-prejudiced stance in examining phenomenon. Here, preconceived theoretical speculations are abandoned.

CONTENT OF PHILOSOPHY/BRANCHES OF TECHINICAL PHILOSOPHY

a. Epistemology

What is Epistemology?

This is the philosophical study of knowledge. Epistemology is derived from two Greek words: episteme (knowledge) and logia (study). It deals with philosophical reflection on issues related to knowledge. Epistemology does not deal with factual knowledge such as that which socio-sciences are involved. empirical sciences like Psychology and sociology study issues by describing in a factual manner what they have observed about human knowledge e.g. in cognitive development, a Psychologist will talk about how it differs in relation to age, individual and the society. The philosopher on the other hand  will not inform on facts and try to justify; instead, he will think before and after the scientist does his work thereby challenging the scientist. Epistemology distinguishes clearly between rationalism (which stresses the role of intellect in knowledge acquisition) and empiricism (pays attention to sense experience).

 It studies the nature, sources and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer questions like:

    What is knowledge? How do we know? What is truth ? What can we really know/       What does it mean to say that I know something? What are the sources of knowledge?

b. Axiology

What is Axiology?

It is the philosophical/rational study of values. The term is derived from Greek words logia (study) and axia (values).

     Can Axiology be analyzed further?

It is subdivided into the following sub branches:

      Ethics or moral philosophy – reflects on the origin and nature of moral values: meaning of what is right and wrong.

      Aesthetics – philosophical study of artistic values. Interested in meaning of beauty, art.

      Social and cultural philosophy – study of values related to societies and cultures

      Political philosophy – deals with study of politics, governance etc.

What are the categories of values studied under Axiology?[1]

The philosophical study of values is restricted to the prescriptive domains. Values fall under three categories:

      Objective – values considered to be universal e.g. good, truth, beauty, freedom, love.

      Relative – values that depends on personal preference.

       Hierarchical – ordering values from the least desirable to the most desirable.

c. Metaphysics

iWhat is Metaphysics?

This term refers to what goes beyond the physics/nature.. It deals with questions, things or concerns that lie after or beyond the physical world of sense experience.  

ii. Subdivisions of Metaphysics

Metaphysics is traditionally divided into four areas:

1.      Cosmology: the study of the universe (cosmos). It has to do with the origin and nature meaning of the universe. This is done rationally.

2.      Theodicy: rational investigation of the supernatural. It belongs to the field of theology where religious concepts and beliefs are assessed.

3.      Rational or philosophical psychology: philosophy of the mind. It investigates into the intricate processes of perceiving, imagining, remembering, feeling, understanding, willing. It attempts to solve the mind/body problem; their composition, nature and relationship e.g. can mind survive destruction of the body?

4.      Ontology: the philosophical study of ‘being’. What is the meaning of existence? What comprises matter? What is man/woman? What is the essence of being? The meaning of Being: Anything Whatsoever that is or exists. Modes of Being : Physical/Material being, Spiritual being

iii. First Principles of Metaphysics

1.      Principle of Non Contradiction: A thing X cannot at the time be and not be

2.      Principle of Identity: Every being  is determined in itself, is one with itself, and is consistent in itself

3.      Principle of Intelligibility: Everything that is, inso far as it is , is intelligible

4.      Principle of Causality: Whatever comes to be has a cause

5.      Principle of Finality: Every agents acts //All beings when acting tend to some definite effect

6.      Principle of the Excluded middle: There cannot be an intermediate between contradictions

7.      Principle of Sufficient Reason: Everything that exists has sufficient reason for its existence

iv. Principles of Being:  Causality and Participation: causality is that from which something else proceeds with dependency in being. Participation; structural dependence of many beings on the one being. it means  to receive a part of what belongs to another fully and so merely sharing in it.

Types of causes

1.      Efficient cause: That by which any change is brought about in order of execution in order of execution.

2.      Material cause; That out which a new being arises-matter in regard to form

3.      Formal cause: The act by which a material substratum  is determined towards a new being

4.      Final cause: That because of which some is or becomes

Essence and Existence: Existence is the act whereby a thing is present in nature or in mind. Essence is mode or manner according to which really might be fashioned

Potency and Act: Potency is the aptitude in a being to receive some  or perform an act . Act is the fully present realization of Potency.

    

v.                  Substance and Accident(Details later)

 d. Logic

It refers to the study of correct reasoning. It deals with the structure and principles of sound arguments. On our daily basis, individuals are engaged in various forms of arguments, where premises/statements are made and conclusions drawn. In most cases, wrong conclusions are arrived at involving wrong premises and undue generalizations. Logic is essential because it stipulates how arguments should be constructed and how fallacies (erroneous beliefs or myths) can be detected and avoided. Within logic, two forms of reasoning can be distinguished:  deductive and inductive.

‘Definitions

i. Mental Operations

1.      Apprehension: Deals  with Conception (simple mental grasp of an  object-without further operation),

2.      Judgment : Mental sentence or proposition(Affirm or deny)

3.      Reasoning: Argument( Drawing Inferences, dealing with premises and conclusion)

ii. Reasoning : Mind's movement from one or more propositions which act as evidence for a final proposition which  calls for proof.

iii. Propositions: A proposition is any statement with truth value i.e. it can be proved to be true or false. e.g. Stones are cats. Propositions are never assessed in terms of validity. Its either True orFalse.

iv. Arguments: Is a set of Premises(evidential propositions)  and Conclusions(Claiming propositions).

v. Quarrelling: Not same as arguing- some of the statements in an quarrel are not propositions. Quarrelling is more of  a psychological activity than it is a Philosophical activity.

vi. Some symbols used in logic:

1.      >   If......then...(symbol for Biconditionality)

2.      v  Either.....or....(Symbol of disjunction)

3.      ^  Both.....and.....(Symbol of Conjunctionality)

4.      ≡ ....If and only if...(Symbol of Biconditionality)

5.       (   ){  }[  ] Brackets are used to separate collective Propositions

vi. Dimensions of Mordern logic

In modern philosophy, logic is expressed in two main dimensions:

Symbolic logic involving mathematical symbols – application of symbols to explain phenomena e. g a + b = 4: b= 4 – a

1.      Analytic logic – prevalently used by analytic philosophers who emphasize the logical analysis of language to arrive at clear  meanings of terms/concepts.

2.      Students studying science, arts or education should be familiar with the basic rules of logic so as to enable one reason correctly and use language meaningfully.

b.  Forms of Reasoning/ Types of arguments

i. Reductive Reasoning( Reductio ad absurdum)

            Reducing a statement to its opposite or absurdity

            P>-P  then -P

            If it is not raining then assume it's not raining

ii. Abductive Reasoning

Reasoning from the best possible explanation

ABD1

Given evidence E and candidate explanations H₁,…, H_n of E, infer the truth of that H_i which best explains E.

ABD2

Given evidence E and candidate explanations H₁,…, H_n of E, infer the truth of that H_i which explains E best, provided H_i is satisfactory/good enough qua explanation.

ABD3

Given evidence E and candidate explanations H₁,…, H_n of E, if H_i explains E better than any of the other hypotheses, infer that H_i is closer to the truth than any of the other hypotheses.

 iii. Dialectical Reasoning: Synthesis from a Thesis and Anti thesis. No contradictions

iv. Deductive Reasoning

This involves reasoning from general to particular instances. In this case, a conclusion is inferred or deduced from  general premises/statements/propositions.

 Properties of a  Deductive argument

1.      Validity-( A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion necessarily logically affirms the premises. It is invalid if and only if it has all true premises and a False conclusion)

2.      Soundness:(A sound Deductive argument is one  which has  all      actually/factually true premises and true conclusion)

      Examples

1.      All PGDE students are untrained teachers

John is a PGDE student

John is an untrained teacher

2.      All human beings are liable to make mistakes

Mike is a human being

Mike makes mistakes

3.      All human beings have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God

Mary is a human being

Mary has sinned and fallen short of the glory of God

       4. All numbers  ending with 5 and 0 are divisible by 5

            1,964.5 Ends with 5

            conclusion?...........

     Further examples

            Private schools perform well in national exams

                              All Kikuyus are thieves

                  All Luos are proud

                  All university students are immoral

                  Teachers are hard working

                  All Philosophers are idiots

                  All cats are dogs

The above reasoning has been expressed in syllogism form: the  first two statements need to be stated before the third can follow logically. This type of reasoning is prevalent in philosophy, religion and mathematics.

 How to determine  validity of a deductive argument.....(To be continued)

v. Inductive reasoning(Continue Editing)

            It involves general laws/conclusions being inferred from particular instances. It is the reverse of deductive reasoning. In this type of reasoning, various instances of a given specimen are observed over a period of time. The observation leads to general conclusions/laws being established  with some level of probability. This type of reasoning is applicable with empirical sciences.

Example 1:  P1. Most Kenyans are corrupt

                    P2. Otieno is  a Kenyan

..............................................................................

Therefore probably Otieno is corrupt

Example 2: P1. There are 100 mangoes in the basket

                    P2. 70 of the mangoes picked are rotten

...............................................................................

Probably all the 100 mangoes are rotten

                   

   Properties of Inductive reasoning

1.      Strength: An inductive argument is said to be strong when it is  when it is such that  when the premises are assumed or granted to be true the its conclusion is most likely to be true.

2.      Cogency: An argument is Cogent when it is both strong and has actually true premises

 

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[1]Philosophical reflection on values becomes necessary when people are no longer certain about what is important, worthwhile valuable for one’s life. It’s applied when people are faced with conflicting moral standards or confronted with radically opposed ideologies that call for the need for one to think about the foundation of morality and the society. Ethics/moral philosophy have a great link with education.