LECTURE FOUR:MARCH 19TH, 2019
LECTURE PLAN
Review of
Lecture 1 (5 Minutes)
i.
Definition of Philosophy
ii.
General and Technical Philosophy
Review of Lecture 2 (10minutes)
i.
History of Western Philosophy
ii.
Methods of Philosophy,
iii.
Epistemology and Axiology
Review Lecture Three
i.
Metaphysics- (05 minutes)
ii.
Logic- (10minutes)
Lecture Four
i.
The concept of
Education (35Minutes)
ii.
The concept of
Teaching (35minutes)
iii.
African
Philosophy (45 Minutes)
iv.
Summary (5mins)
1.3. The concept of Education
1.3.1. Definitions of Education
The Concept of
Education is a very complex concept and thus cannot be defined in simple
terms due to its diverse shades of meaning. It also applies to diverse
activities and processes. Most definitions of education are descriptive in
nature. As such, they do not capture a single idea but a family of ideas. The
meaning of the word education can be accessed from the following perspectives:
(a)
Etymological Definition
Etymology is the
study of the origin of terms/words.
Educare:
Accordingly, education is said to be
derived from the Latin verb educare. In the ancient Rome, the verb
referred to the general process of growing up, of rearing, of bringing up.
Originally, it designated both the rearing of plants, animals and the bringing
up of children. Based on this definition, education has come to be viewed as
the art of molding, of giving form to an incomplete or delicate person i.e.
child. It presupposes the role of an adult molding the character, mind and
psychomotor of the learner.
Educere:
Other scholars trace the origin of the term education to a Latin word ‘Educere’
meaning to lead out or to bring out. In other words, the adult assists the
child to come of age and realize his potential without any shade of coercion.
The assumption is that the child is in possession of abilities/potential
awaiting to be elicited by proper guidance..
(a)
Descriptive Definition
Dictionary: This is the meaning as
offered in a dictionary. The meaning is descriptive in nature and
inadequate because it tends to be general and vague e.g. the Fontana dictionary
defines educating as:
Ø Passing
on a cultural heritage
Ø Initiation
of the young into worthwhile ways of thinking and doing.
Ø Fostering
of an individual’s growth.
This definition
is limited because it does not explain the cardinal factors requisite in the
process of educating namely that which has to do with transmission
i.e. how does one do it? Which component of cultural heritage is worth of
education?
(b)
Prescriptive/Normative Definition
This
perspective tends to be biased depending on the thinkers/theorists involved for
instance:
Ø Plato
defined education in the laws as training
Ø Comenius
defined it is as the art of teaching all men all things
Ø Milton
defines it as the art of knowing everything
Ø Lodge
defines it as equivalent to experience i.e. the experience of man interacting
with his/her normal environment.
These
definitions tend towards the end that
Education should achieve
The
more we pursue the definition of the concept of education along the foregoing
paths, the more complex it becomes. Realizing this, analytic philosophers have
suggested necessary conditions or criteria of education
1.3.2. Criteria/Conditions/
Dimensions of Education
a. R. S Peters' Criteria of Education
According
to R S Peters (1966) in Ethics and
Education:
i.
Desirability condition: Education must involve the
transmission of what is worthwhile, valuable or desirable(Normative Criteria)
ii.
Knowledge Condition: Education must involve knowledge and understanding, and
some kind of cognitive perspective(Cognitive Criteria)
iii.
Procedural Condition: Education rules out certain
procedures of transmission that lacks willingness
and voluntaries on the part of the learner(Procedural Criteria)
b. Njoroge and Benaar's Dimensions of
Education
Njoroge and
Bennars in Theory and Practice of Education (1994) have reflect
on these criteria and proposed four criteria or dimensions of education.
i.
Cognitive
Dimension: Education must involve
the development of knowledge and understanding. Education presupposes the
acquisition of knowledge – facts, skills, ideas, principles. It also involves
intellectual activities like thinking, judging, reasoning, perceiving, deciding,
abstraction, discrimination, intuition and imagination.
ii.
Creative
Dimension: Education should involve
the development
of
individuality. It should encourages the development of individual unique
capacities and so it should make the individual creative rather than a docile
recipient of knowledge. It should make one a tool – user rather that make one a
tool. This happens through encouraging self- esteem, self–reliance,
self–determination, self–expression and individual growth. Education
that places emphasis on knowledge only may produce a person who is too academic
but lacking social training. Besides being academically endowed, an educated
person should actively participate as a creative agent.
iii.
Normative
Dimension: Education should involve
Socialization. Education
takes place in a social setting and serves social functions. Education as
Socialization is the acquisition of Knowledge, values, attitudes, skills to
make learners acceptable members of society. These values and skills are passed
from one generation to the next. The aims (objectives), content and
methods of education are socially determined. The norms and values transmitted
ought to address the mind/the understanding level as opposed to mere habit
formation.
iv.
Dialogical
Dimension: Education should involve
dialogue which is
essentially a process of communication between the learner and the environment
as well as between the learner and teacher. Education as dialogue encourages
mutual respect, understanding, free debate and co-operation between learner and
teacher. Methods that hinder free and active participation of both teacher and
learners negate proper education. The methods should neither be
too permissive nor too authoritarian.
c. Paolo Freire's Banking concept of
Education
i. General Description
Over-emphasis -on the cognitive
dimension of education has reduced the learning process to an almost mechanical
exercise in mental skills, normally known as training.
Banking Concept: Underlying all this is
what Paolo Freire has called the banking concept of education revolving around
the principle of deposit and withdrawal
seen as operative in education.
Learners are regarded as knowledge
banks, depositories, receptacles or empty vessels which are to be filled with
knowledge which they are expected to keep and guard till it’s demanded back at
the time of examination.
Passivity: Throughout, learners tend to
be passive and docile in matters of knowledge and learning. They acquire
notions without internalizing or understanding them fully. Learners become mere
storehouses of facts, of intellectuals. Consequently, says Freire, what they
have learnt does not in any way affect them personally in their daily
understandings.
Externality: Knowledge remains external
and the products of the system become full in their heads but empty in their
hearts.
ii.Characteristics of the Banking Concept
Ø Narration: The teacher narrates all they know to
the learners who consume every word without alterations or questioning.
Ø Memorization: The learner mechanically memorizes the
narrated content. Learning becomes a process of conditioning and brain washing.
An activity that is characterized by cramming and rot learning.
Ø Tabula Rasa: Learners are perceived as empty vessels
to be filled with knowledge from the teacher or textbooks.
Ø Depositionism: Education becomes an act of
depositing in which the teacher the depositor and the learner is the
depository.
Ø Superiorism: Education and knowledge in
particular, is seen as a gift by those who consider themselves knowledgeable
upon those they consider to know nothing.
Ø Justificationism: The teacher considers the
learners’ ignorance absolute and justifies his knowledgeability.
iii.
Limitations of the Banking Concept of Education
Ø Stifling: The banking activity in education
stifles the learner’s creativity.
Ø Competition: It creates unnecessary and unhealthy
competition in the classroom.
Ø False
Premise: It is founded on the false premise that the learner is a tabula
rasa and like an empty vessel. The learner always has something of
their own that they bring with them into the educative process.
Ø Passivity: It makes learners passive observers
rather than active participants, creatures rather than creators in the process
of acquiring knowledge. Thus knowledge obtained is to a large extent only skin
deep and without internalization, it is short lived
Ø Narrow-mindedness: The banking concept narrows the
student’s outlook and vision. It perpetuates narrow mindedness and meanness of
ideas in learners.
Ø Undermining: It undermines the rational powers or
abilities of the learner.
Ø Counter productivity: It also
promotes rot learning i.e. it emphasizes memory and recall which are often
counterproductive in education.
NB:
Personal involvement in the discovery of knowledge and internalization of
knowledge by the learner are to be emphasized. Noting that knowledge cannot be
acquired passively, the learners must be actively and directly involved.
1.4. The concept of teaching
Teaching may refer to three aspects:
a) An occupation or a profession.
b) Normal activity of a teacher in a
classroom or school situation (enterprise)
c) Describing an actual teaching
exercise.
(a)
Teaching as a profession
This entails the
following:
Ø An occupation by which a living is
earned.
Ø Deeper commitment.
Ø Long duration of
preparation/training.
Ø Formal induction and acceptance.
Ø Standard of performance or
competence.
Ø Code of regulations, ethics or
practice to preserve the honor and prestige of the profession.
Ø Willingness to advance the growth
and effectiveness.
Ø Regular scheme of payment and
remuneration.
Ø A great regard for the interest or
advantage of the client.
(b)
Teaching as an enterprise
It refers to the
cluster of activities that the teacher engages in within the school setting:
Ø Marking registers.
Ø Maintaining discipline.
Ø Filling mark books.
Ø Coordinating co-curricular
activities.
Ø Being on duty (TOD).
(c)
Actual teaching
Simply defined
as a system of actions intended to induce learning. Must meet the following
criteria:
i.
Have
a person who is consciously and deliberately doing the teaching.
ii.
Another
person or oneself who is being taught – learner is logically necessary.
iii.
Something
(content) being taught (facts, information, knowledge, skills).
iv.
At
least an intention on the part of the person doing the act that the recipient
should learn.
v.
Involve
methods or procedures that are orally and pedagogically sound or acceptable.
According to William Frankena (1973), education is said to take
place when
“X is fostering or seeking to foster in Y some
disposition. D by method M.” Where
X
is the society, the teacher or whoever is educating (even oneself)
Y is the
leaner (child youth or adult)
D is
disposition beliefs, habit, knowledge, skills, attitudes considered desirable
both for the leaner and society.
M is morally acceptable methods
that pay attention to the interest of the learner, personal integrity and
active participation in the learning process. (Methods should not dehumanize or
degrade the learner.)
1.5. Educational thought in
Africa
This can be
classified into various categories:
I
Traditional
·
The African traditional/indigenous education.
·
The Islamic tradition in education
·
The Western tradition in education
II
Contemporary
(a)
Conservatism
·
Colonial view of education
·
The religious view of education
·
The nationalist view of education
(b)
Progressivism
·
the liberal view to education
·
the radical view to education
·
the instrumental view to education
(I)
Traditional thought: the african indigenous educational thought
According to J P
Ocitti (1973), African indigenous educational thought comprised of the
following philosophical principles:
·
Communalism
·
Preparationalism
·
Functionalism
·
Perenialism
·
Whotisticism
(a)
Communalism
It is derived
from the adjective communal originating from the Latin word ‘communis’ meaning
belonging equally to two or more people. It refers to a condition where people
are united, cohesive, cooperative, and are committed to the welfare of
the group as opposed to individualism. In practice, the principle of
communalism was expressed through the socialization of children as opposed to
individualization. Education was aimed at strengthening the organization, unity
of the clan, community and chief-dom. Overall, cooperation was preferred to
competition enabling the children to grow up seeing their well being in terms
of the welfare of the group.
Relevance to
contemporary education
·
Unity and cooperation are desirable virtues which modern education ought
to inculcate in the learners. Education policy makers should do away with
parochial/narrow minded extension of the society as a whole.
·
Teaching of social education and ethics, history, literature as
instruments to this endeavor.
Limitations
·
Communalism’s emphasis on the organic whole of the community denies the
human person the freedom to exercise unique potential, and to aspire to become
rather than conform.
·
Unity of purpose, theory and action in inhibitive to creativity. It
negates the need to establish unity in diversity.
(b)
Preparationalism
Derived from the
noun preparation which stems from Latin word ‘prepare’ meaning to make ready.
It entails the process of making someone ready or suitable for a certain
purpose. In the African indigenous society, children were prepared to become
useful members of the society. They were expected to become well adjusted with
certain values, ideas, modes of behaviour and attitudes in their adult life
particularly as married men and women.
Relevance
·
It is imperative for education to equip individuals with the capacity to
cope with the physical, social and perhaps spiritual environment. The content,
methods and overall aims of education ought to prepare someone to become a
useful member of the society.
·
Modern education has relegated this aspect to training colleges and
universities which caters for a negligible percentage of learners.
Limitations
·
Over emphasis on the outcome/preparation can easily overlook the
process value of education. Each piece of knowledge, skill and general attitude
ought to be useful.
(c)
Functionalism
Function
is Latin word meaning action or activity proper to anything. It also refers to
the ability to function or to be useful in practical terms. Indigenous
education emphasized this principle by ensuring that every learning experience
was useful. Children were inducted into the society through participatory
learning. They were involved in work, ceremonies, rituals, imitation play,
hunting and oral literature. Practical learning was highly valued.
Relevance
·
The utility value of learning experience is a positive approach to
education. In other words, education is of use to the society.
·
Learning by participation can encourage production in society. Instead
of confining the youth and energetic adults to institutions of learning and
exposing them to theories, they should work as they learn.
·
The principle underscores the empirical approach to learning which is a
useful method of teaching and learning.
·
Creativity component of education is essential.
(d)
Perenialism
The term
emanates from the adjective perennial which is from Latin ‘perenis’ meaning
lasting throughout the year or a succession of years. It designates a sense of
permanence. Indigenous education was based on the assumption that
cultural heritage e.g. language, food types, beliefs and traditions was
essential for the survival of the clan or tribe. The values, attitudes and
practices contained in the common heritage were considered established once and
for all in the long distant past. Succeeding generations were not allowed to
change or modify it but had to perform/observe it and hand it over.
Relevance
Historical study
of the past is good so as to appreciate and understand the milestones in the
development and evolution of ideas, knowledge and certain practices.
Limitation
·
It tends to overlook the learners. Teaching based on perenialism is
mainly teacher and content centered while today’s teaching advocated for the
learner centered approach.
·
Knowledge is pragmatic and keeps on changing after every given period of
time.
(e)
Wholisticism
It is derived
from the adjective wholistic whose origin is the word ‘hal’ an old English term
meaning not divided into parts, complete amount or a combination of parts.
Indigenous education entailed a wide range of skills, attitudes, values and
knowledge. It was aimed at producing an all round person equipped with a wide
range of skills.
Relevance
·
Wholistic approach to learning is important because it enables and
individual to function in diverse situations. The approach however encourages
shallowness (jack of all trades and master of none)
·
Specialization is essential for innovation to be realized in the
society.
(II)
Contemporary view: Nationalism ideas in education -Edward Wilmot Blyden
(1832 -1932)
Born in West
Indies in 1932, he migrated to Liberia in 1851. He lived during a time when
racism was at its peak. Africans were considered backward and primitive. The
Western education was widespread and its major aim was to enable Africans to
imbibe Western values ideas and worldviews. His contemporaries reacted to the
racial prejudices differently. Some were persuaded to discard their cultures
and absorb the Western culture wholesale attaining what Frantz Fanon refers to
as a “black skin, white mask”. The second group attempted to integrate the
Western values with African values i.e. they discarded whatever was repugnant
and adapted that which was useful. The third category adopted a racial stance
against the prevalent racial myths. They tenaciously defended the Negro
cultural heritage by dispelling the lingering racial myths, and second by
advancing unprejudiced racial theories. This category of thinkers was
equivalent of cultural nationalists. Blyden falls in this category. His
nationalist ideas included:
·
Defending the Negro race as a distinctive race capable of playing its
rightful role in the civilization of humankind.
·
He opposed the inferiority complex exhibited among Africans in their
encounter with people of other races.
·
He painted to the fact that the Negro race had played a significant role
in the field of learning in the past and could do so again if the right
education was transmitted.
He thus
advocated for:
·
A race-conscious-culture based type of education i.e. a curriculum
specially tailored towards the innate capacity and the ultimate utility of
race. This should be an education that will cause Africans to discover
themselves. Education in Africa should instill confidence among Africans. It
should restore human dignity and absolute confidence or faith in one’s creative
abilities. This call for authentic personality that strives to dispel the
lingering myth of European people being superior to the Negro. He came up with
the Philosophy of Afrikaners that sought to establish how to make black people
participate in the community of nations.
·
The development of the mind to be able to subdue complicated phenomena.
This would enable one to express themselves in normative, rational and creative
domains. Towards this, he advocated for the education of girls and women in
order to ensure rapid and permanent progress.
(III)
Progressivist perspective: Liberal view to education Julius Kambarage
Nyerere
Born in 1922 in
Musoma Tanzania, he obtained a Diploma in education at Makerere College Uganda
and later undertook a Master of Arts Degree in Edinburg University in 1952. He
became involved in the politics of Tanzania when he returned home. He was a
co-founder of TANU along with other nationalists. During the first presidential
elections in 1962, he was elected the first president of post-colonial
Tanzania. Besides politics, Nyerere articulated his ideas in diverse spheres of
knowledge including social philosophy and education. In education, he advocated
two related views namely: education for self-reliance and education for
liberation.
Education
for self reliance
The concept of
self reliance comprises of two distinctive words, ‘self’ and ‘reliance’. Self
refers to the human person, the agent or the ‘I’ of the individual. Reliance
points to a state of being that are dependent on something or somebody else. It
refers to some bond or relationship where subjects embrace in inter-subjective
relationship viewed together. Self reliance refers to a situation where the
individual relies upon himself/herself or his/her being. In a book called
‘education for self reliance’ (1967), Nyerere underscored the need to radically
examine education in Tanzania. He diagnosed the major pitfalls of the inherited
colonial education in Tanzania as:
·
Education was founded upon the principle of capitalism; it promoted a
class of elites and inequality and class structure.
·
It divorced its participants from society and discouraged them from
unconditional service to the community. They want to live in towns.
·
It tended to be formal; book centered and despised traditional informal
knowledge and wisdom.
·
It tended to be unproductive, discouraging students and pupils from hard
work.
These factors
were not in agreement with the past independent Tanzania which basically
embraced the philosophy of Ujamaa (African Socialism). Ujamaa stood for:
·
Work by everyone and exploitation by none.
·
Fair sharing of resources which are jointly produced.
·
Equity and respect for human dignity.
·
Education for self reliance. It meant the attainment of economic and
cultural independence at a corporate level where society could rely on itself
for progress and development.
·
It also meant individuals expressing themselves in creative, productive
terms as a result of education.
Education
for liberation
The concept of
liberation stands for:
·
Being freed from what appears inhibiting/constraining.
·
Being freed to be able to undertake, empowerment or freedom to become.
Education for
liberation implied in Nyerere’s context:
·
Removal of constraints and limitations that stood in the way of
Tanzanians to become self reliant: this is namely colonialism and post colonial
conditions that were in the interest of colonial powers.
·
Liberation is not a once for all event: it is an ongoing process
involving systematic eradication o physical and mental impediments to freedom.
·
Liberation is both physical and mental – the total emancipation of man.
·
Education should release liberating ideas and skills to the mind of
learners. This is likely to increase control over themselves, their lives and
their environment
·
Education for liberation should employ rational approaches to educating
in the sense that educating should arose curiosity and provoke inquiry.
·
The product of education for liberation is likely to be a self reliant
individual.
