PART ONE:
INTRODUCTION
1.1. An introduction to
philosophy
1.1.1.
Etymological Definition of Philosophy
The term philosophy is derived from two Greek
words Philia-meaning love(loving),
striving after, searching for; and Sophia
meaning wisdom or knowledge. Philosophy can therefore mean the love of
knowledge, pursuit of wisdom. The Latin, French and English transliteration and
usage go beyond 'Love of wisdom' to systematic investigation.
a. Etymology Table
Greek : Φιλια(Philia) meaning Love.
Love refereeing to Striving after ,Search for
Σοφις(Sophis) meaning Learned or wise
Σοφια (Sophia) meaning Wisdom
Φιλοσοϕια (Philosophia) therefore means wisdom the Love of Wisdom (Emphasis
on applying knowledge to daily
living)
Latin: Philosophia- 'Love of wisdom' + Systematic investigation(Emphasis
on Reasoning) .
French: Philosophie- 'Love
of wisdom' + systematic investigation.
(Emphasis on Reasoning) .
English : Philosophy-. Love of Wisdom+ Systematic
investigation(Emphasis on Reasoning) .
b. Pertinent Questions-
Philosophy?-Philosopher?
What is
Love?
i). Love is the affectionate Feeling/
attraction towards someone/ something/or an activity (Emotive, Psychological,
general conception of Love)
ii). A
commitment, An act of pursuing that which is ultimately good regardless of by time, place, feelings, or other variables(
constant, rational, logical, volitional view of love).
What is
Wisdom?
i). Ability
to subsequently distinguish between
what is ultimately good/right, to avoid what is ultimately bad/wrong wrong and to choose
what is ultimately right/good so as to
live a meaningful life.(Normative aspect of love)
ii). Commitment
to pursuit of Truth (Epistemological view-poinbt) .
Who is a
Philosopher?
i) General
Definition: Any person who is able to distinguish
between what is ultimately good/right, avoid
what is ultimately[1]
bad/wrong wrong and to choose what
is ultimately right/good so as to live a
meaningful life.
ii) Strict
definition: Any person who is committed to the pursuit of Truth through a systematic
investigation.
NB: Philosophy can thus be redefined either
as the desire to and actual
living of a good (normative) life or as a
committed pursuit for truth (Research
aspect of Philosophy)
1.1.2.
Operational definition of Philosophy
Working definition of Philosophy can take various
dimensions
a. Material
Definition:The Systematic study of
the general and fundamental nature of
Reality, knowledge and values.[2]
Who is a
Philosopher? (Part 2)
Philosophers are persons who ponder such concepts
as existence or being, morality or goodness, knowledge, truth and beauty.
b. Formal
Definition: Philosophy can mean the
academic exploration or Analytical ,
Creative and/or Critical way of thinking about assumptions, beliefs or
fundamental problems of life[3]
Who is a
Philosopher? (Part 3)[4]
A
philosopher is a person who has biased, critical and reflective thinking that
can generate principles and theories.
1.1.3. General vs Technological Definition
ü
Sapientia/
Sapiens/ Homo(Wisdom/ Wise/ Man): The beginning of philosophy coincides with
the beginnings of man /homo sapiens ( meaning Wise man or Philosopher man).
ü
Philosophy
is therefore universal(but also
Particular) Universality of philosophy means that philosophy as a human/ homo
sapiential response can be found in every period of history in every
culture/society on earth.
ü
Philosophy
is not a preoccupation of scholars only but all humanity because they all
question their humanity, human condition and experiences of life.
ü
Africans
expressing their traditional thought through stories, riddles and proverbs is
as much part of philosophy as books by renown philosophers like Plato in The
Republic
ü
One’s
philosophy of life e.g. to be a farmer, teacher, carpenter etc is as much
philosophy as national philosophies like Kenya’s Nyayo Philosophy, Tanzania’s Ujamaa.
ü
Philosophy
in general sense also refers principles that govern a person's life or an institution
ü
Particularity
of General Philosophy implies its variance from time to time (traditional or
modern), from place to place (European, African, Asian etc). Particular
means that, a human being facing different situations in different places at
different times is likely to respond differently to these situations because of
authenticity of thought[5].
Who is a Philosopher? (Part 5)[6]: A thinker
who is independent, genuine, original, critical and sincere, giving a personal
answer to a personal questions through a personal struggle.[7]
1.1.4.
Technical Philosophy
Also referred to
as formal/academic philosophy.
An academic
discipline comprising of specialized content,
methods and specialists known as Technical/academic/Formal philosophers.
It is both a process
(activity of vigorous thinking concerning perplexing questions/issues of life) and
a product( the outcome of the process thinking i.e. established systems of
thought, views and ideas).
Meant for few people; individuals who are committed to
scrutinizing issues, problems going beyond the surface common sense aspects to
their logical composition.
Chracteristics of Technical Philosophy
(i)
Formalization
ü
It
is a process whereby a definite form is given to a variety of human activities;
form refers to the presence of a structure, pattern or system. Formalization in
our context in philosophy refers to formalization of thought.
ü
Initially,
philosophy consisted of the general amorphous sense. With the advent of
writing, the various philosophical thought began to be expressed in a more
definite, systematic and lasting form.
ü
Today
the world of technical philosophy is a world of books, scholarly writings,
formal language and systematic thought because it is an exclusive domain for
academic scholars leaving no room for oral traditions of the past and common
philosophies of life.
ü
Writing
also allowed for debate and as long as debate continued, philosophy continued
to thrive.
(ii) Westernization
ü
Western
civilization has greatly influenced the field of learning to an extent that
philosophy is attributed to Western philosophers.
ü
It
is believed that philosophy originated from ancient Greece and was further
developed in Europe and America. Philosophy is closely associated with Western
civilization to an extend that anyone interested in it must be familiar with
the various systems like realism (emphasizes that there is a world of real
existence which exists independently of human mind), idealism (stresses
the idea that reality is an expression of the mind: knowledge is based on
recognition/remembrance of latent/inborn ideas already present in the
mind), pragmatism (views reality as a changing phenomenon: man sees reality
differently as he interacts with it), as well as the philosophical language
that is associated with it.
ü
As
a result of this, Western philosophy is assumed to be the standard of technical
philosophy. For instance, ancient Egypt played a very big role in the field of
learning such as medicine and philosophy. Ancient Greece and anyone who had
studied in Egypt was highly regarded as an authority.
iii.
Specialization
ü
Refers
to the acquisition of exceptional knowledge of, or skills in a given
discipline/subject as a result of constant and intensive study.
ü
In
ancient Greece, a philosopher was a scholar who specialized in the exploration
of the nature of man and the world. The knowledge was not dichotomized into
rational and empirical domains. A philosopher was thus a Master of Arts and
Science.
ü
Due
to westernization, western specialists started at one time to dominate the
field of formal philosophy and subsequently imposed their language, interests
and methods upon others making formal philosophy highly technical and a matter
for experts; always within the Western context.
ü
Aristotle,
an ancient Greek philosopher wrote widely on ethics, politics, fine art, logic,
biology and physics.
ü
Philosophy
was referred to as the mother of all sciences, the most distinguished science
‘scientia eminentia’. With the advent of scientific evolution, the empirical
sciences were detached from philosophy. Later on, other disciplines like
sociology, psychology and anthropology developed as independent disciplines
from philosophy. These developments led to a situation where philosophy
acquired its own methods, content and terminologies.[8]
1.1.5. Brief History of Philosophy in the West
1. Pre-philosophical times.
ü
Dominated
by poets and mythologies
ü
Myths
and poems were like the modern bible
ü
gods
were immoral but people followed them due to dogmatism
ü
People
were captive in thinking
ü
Key
figures include Homer and Hesiod
2. Ancient greek philosophy( 6th century b.c.)
I.
Pre-Socratic philosophical schools
A. The
Milesians
ü Also:
Monist Materialists/ Cosmologists
ü Philosophers: Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander
ü Description: Materialists -they believed that all things are composed of matter and nothing else Deviated from supernatural or mythological
explanations.
ü Philosophical Problem: What is the single underlying substance the world is made up of?
ü Responses to the Problem:
B. Pythagoreanism:
ü
Regarding
the world as perfect harmony, dependent on number,
ü
Aimed
at inducing humankind likewise to lead a harmonious life.
ü
His
doctrine was adopted and extended by Pythagoreans
C.Ephesian
school
ü Heraclitus: on-going
process of perpetual change
is a constant interplay of opposites
ü Xenophenes:...........
ü The Ephesian
philosophers were interested in the natural world and the properties by which
it is was ordered.
ü
Xenophanes and Heraclitus were able to push
philosophical inquiry further than the Milesian school by examining the nature
of philosophical inquiry itself.
ü
In addition, they were also invested in
furthering observations and explanations regarding natural and physical process
and also the functions and processes of the human subjective experience.
ü
Hereclitus
and Xenophenes
both shared interests in analyzing philosophical inquiry as they contemplated
morality and religious belief.
D. Eleatic School
ü Philosophers: Heraclitus,
Parmenides, Zeno
ü Philosophical Problem: The Problem of change- Is change real or is it
an illusion?.
ü Responses to the Problem:
ü Parmenides: No such thing as change at all. Everything that
exists is permanent, indestructible and unchanging
ü
Zeno of Elea (a student of Parmenides) all belief in plurality
and change is mistaken, motion is nothing but an illusion
E.
Pluralists
ü
Philosophers:
Empedocles, Anaxagoras
ü
ü
Philosophical
Problem : Whether reality is reducible to simple elements or it is the case
that its plural?
ü
Anaxagoras: No coming to be : All things were together, After
separation, in everything there is a
share of everything.
F. Atomists
ü
Philosophers: Leuccippus, Democritus
ü Philosophical Problem: What is
the simplest, tiniest microcosmic component of Physical reality?
ü Response to the Problem:
ü
Leucippus
: the universe consists of two different
elements, which he called ‘the full’ or ‘solid,’ and ‘the empty’ or ‘void’.
Both the void and the solid atoms within it are thought to be infinite, and
between them to constitute the elements of everything
ü Democritus: Developed the idea of Atomism that all of reality is actually composed of tiny,
indivisible and indestructible building blocks known as atoms,
which form different combinations and shapes within the surrounding void.[10]
E. Sophists
Sophist from (sophists- from the
Greek words for wisdom (sophia) and wise (sophos).
They were itinerant professional
teachers and intellectuals who frequented Athens and other Greek cities in the
second half of the fifth century B.C.E.
They offered young
wealthy Greek men an education in arête (virtue or
excellence).
Philosophers:
Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon, Hippias, Prodicus, Thrasymachus.
Philosophical problems:
Nature
and Convention: Distinction between Physis and Nomos.
Relativism: Man
is the measure of all things that are, that they are and that are not that they
are not (Protagoras):
Language
and Reality
The sophists were interested in
particular with the role of human discourse in the shaping of reality.
Given their educational program, the sophists placed great emphasis upon the
power of speech (logos)
QN. What is the distinction between
Philosophy and Sophistry?
II. Classical : Greek Philosophy
A.
Socrates of Athens
ü Philosophy really took off, though,
with Socrates and Plato in the 5th - 4th Century B.C. (often referred to as the Classical or Socratic period of philosophy).
ü Unlike most of the Pre-Socratic philosophers before him, Socrates was more concerned with how people
should behave, and so was
perhaps the first major philosopher of Ethics.
ü He developed a system of critical reasoning in order to work
out how to live properly and to
tell the difference between right
and wrong.
ü His system, sometimes referred to as
the Socratic Method, was to
break problems down into a series of
questions, the answers to which would gradually distill a solution.
ü Although he was careful to claim not
to have all the answers himself, his constant
questioning made him many enemies among the authorities of Athens who
eventually had him put to death.
ü Socrates himself never wrote anything down,
and what we know of his views comes from the "Dialogues" of his student Plato.
B. Plato: Politics, Education(To be
covered in Philosophy of Education Section)
C. Aristotle: Natural Philosophy, Metaphysics
3. MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY.
ü
Turning
to Christian philosophy concerned with nature of God.
ü
Augustine argued that’’ it is better to try to achieve truth and
fail than not try at all’’.
ü
He
wanted to proof the existence of God through reasoning (logic)
ü
Thomas Aquinas- cosmological
argument that ‘’ everything that exists
has a cause, but since there could not be an infinite chain of causes back into
the past, there must have been un uncaused first cause’’ this is God
Everything
has some goodness and the cause of each thing is better than the thing caused.
Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing.
ü
St. Anselm came up with
Ontological argument that ‘’God has all
possible good features. Existence is good and therefore God has it and
therefore exist’’
4. RENAISSANCE
ü
Rebirth-
transition between theological philosophy and modern thought.
ü
Characterized
by scientific revolution physics, astronomy, biology, chemistry led to
rejection of rationalist doctrines and laid the foundation of modern science.
ü
Religion,
superstition and fear were replaced by reason and knowledge despite challenges
to Roman Catholic dogma.
ü
Notable
figures of scientific revolution were Copernicus,
Kepler, Newton, Galileo Galile
5. MODERN
PHILOSOPHY
ü
Revival
of skepticism and centered between experience and reality.
ü
Rene Descartes- concerned with
mind-body problem and doubted his own existence.
Other
notable figures include
ü
Emmanuel
Kant,
ü
William
James- pragmatism
ü
Kierkegaard-
existentialism
ü
Karl
mark-social materialist philosophy
6. CONTEMPORARY.
ü
Philosophy
of 20th century to present day
ü
The
21st century philosophers continues to carry with it much of the
philosophical debate seen in the former century
ü
Variety
of new topics has risen to the stage resurrecting ethics into the modern philosophical
discussion e.g. internet has brought back interest in the philosophy of
technology and science.
[1] Ultimately: Points to the fact that some good or bad things can be appear to be
good/bad but in the final analysis they are otherwise. For example waking up in
the morning to study may be apparently bad but ultimately good.
[2] Material Definition is Precursor to Content of
Philosophy: Systematic Study =Logic, Reality=Metaphysics, Knowledge=Epistemology, Values= Axiology
[3] Formal Definition alludes to Philosophical
Approaches(Analysis, Assessment(Critical) and Synthesis(Creative)
[4] Who is a
Philosopher Part 1, Deals with the disposition
of a Philosopher Part 2 Deals with Material content of Philosopher and Part 3 Deals with the modus
operandi of A Philosopher
[5] The term authenticity comes from Greek
‘authentes’ meaning one who does things himself (autos).
[6] Who is a
Philosopher Part 1, Deals with the disposition
of a Philosopher Part 2 Deals with Material content of Philosopher and Part 3 Deals with the modus
operandi of A Philosopher
[7] People however call such thinkers Mwalimu, guru, sage
but reserve the term philosopher for recognized academic scholars mostly of
Western or European origin.
[8]A student of education May not necessarily
require technical philosophy specialization but an introduction in order to
understand the meaning and significance of educational philosophy as an
academic discipline.
[9]Considered the first proper
philosopher
