EDF211/ 11

CONTEMPORARY THEMES IN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Aspects of Education: Aims, Curriculum, Role of Teacher, Role of Learner, Assessment, Learning Environment, Pedagogy, Educational issues

SELECTED CONTEMPORARY THEMES IN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

I. Human rights & education II. Education &democracy  (John Dewey) III. Learning for the 21st century and beyond

I           HUMAN RIGHTS AND EDUCATION (HRE)

HRE:  a process whereby people learn about their rights and the rights of others, within a framework of participatory and interactive learning.

A. Nature of HRE

·         HRE is concerned with changing attitudes and behavior, learning new skills, and promoting the exchange of knowledge and information.

·         HRE is long-term, and aims to provide an understanding of the issues and equip people with the skills to articulate their rights and communicate this knowledge to others.

·         HRE includes a varied range of innovative and effective education programs in the formal, informal and non-formal sectors.

·         It recognizes the universality and indivisibility of human rights;

·         Increases knowledge and understanding of human rights;

·         Empowers people to claim their rights; assists people to use the legal instruments designed to protect human rights.

·         Uses interactive and participatory methodology to develop attitudes of respect for human rights;

·         Develops the skills needed to defend human rights; integrates the principles of human rights into everyday life;

·         Creates a space for dialogue and change;

·         Encourages respect and tolerance.

B. Relationship between Human Rights and Education

There are two main aspects to the relationship between human rights and education.

i. Education as a human right: In one sense the denial of education has in itself come to be seen as the violation of a basic human right and a synonym for disempowerment.

ii. Curriculum: curriculum and the extent to which it possesses a human rights orientation.

i. Education as a human right:

UN declaration on Education as Human Rights"States should strive to eradicate illiteracy and should direct education toward the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms"

ii. Curriculum:

The World Conference on Human Rights

AllStates and institutions to include human rights, humanitarian law, democracy and rule of law as subjects in curricula of all learning  institutions in formal and non- formal settings. Human rights education should include peace, democracy, development and social justice, as set forth in international and regional human rights instruments, in order to achieve common understanding and awareness with a view to strengthening universal commitment to human rights.

C. The role of UNESCO

UNESCO has a responsibility to promote human rights education, and was a key organizer of the UN's Decade for Human Rights Education (1995 – 2004) UNESCO attempts to promote human rights education through:

i)        Development of national and local capacities for human rights education, through its co-operation in development projects and programmes at national and sub-regional levels.

ii)      Elaboration of learning materials and publications and their translation and adaptation in national and local languages.

iii)    Advocacy and Networking Activities.

D. Role of the school in the Pedagogy of human rights

Schools offer human rights education as part of their curriculum. Content in this education includes:

i. Curriculum

         The theory of human rights.

         The practice of human rights.

         Contemporary human rights issues.

ii. Forms of delivery

·               Formal

·               Informal

·               Non formal approach.

 iii. Approaches of Delivery

1. The Perceptual Approach

The learning of human rights ideas through formal teaching/learning situation. This approach may have three forms:

(a)    Human rights training as a subject: This may be offered as a course in the school curriculum. Time is set aside on the formal school timetable during which students are given adequate factual knowledge on human rights. Through theory practice and field visits or excursions students are taught the virtues of good human rights. Teaching is followed by exams.

(b)   Human rights training through social studies curriculum. The subject of Social Studies should introduce students to the political, economic and social life of their community. It imparts on the learners knowledge on the values and activities that we cherish as a society.

(c)    Human rights education through all the subjects of the curriculum. All the subjects should provide an opportunity for the content training.

2. The Exemplary Approach

- human rights training through observation, imitation and role modelling.

- This may be informal – (believed that what we learn informally tends to persist more than what we learn under normal circumstances).

- Members within the immediate environment of learners should set good examples to be emulated – should be beyond reproach. (Do as I say not as I do): Are our teachers good role models? Why? Salary, Poor living conditions e.t.c No one wants to be a teacher. (Being a teacher as condemnation to poverty and moral depravity).

3. The Experiential Approach

- Based on theory of Experience as the best teacher.

- Expose students to opportunities for active and responsible participation in school and community affairs.

- Positive attitudes and essential skills are learnt through participation.

- In school, provide a wide range of activities which encourage working in groups and social interaction.

E. Human rights and quality education

The changing definition of quality education as reading, writing and arithmetic has been expanded to address new challenges such as relevance, universal values, peace and security and informed decision-making. In this context, quality education has to be based on a human rights approach, as well as address areas including, but not limited to, cultural diversity, multilingualism in education, peace and non-violence, sustainable development and life skills. (UNESCO: Human Rights Education). Human rights are designed to protect the less powerful from the whims and caprices of the mighty. They provide protections that have been judged to work to make societies more equitable, peaceful, and stable

F. Possible challenges in teaching human rights education

   Factual inaccuracies and insensitivity to the existing religious, ethnic and cultural diversity of the nation

   Perspectives that encourage bigotry,  prejudice and discrimination towards fellow citizens, especially women, and religious minorities and other nations.

   Omission of concepts and material that could encourage critical self-awareness among students.

NB: Schools must respect human rights by allowing the students the three great freedoms: freedom of choice, freedom of action and freedom to bear the results of action – that constitute personal responsibility.

Revision question

      1        The changing definition of quality education as reading, writing and arithmetic has been expanded to address new challenges such as relevance, universal values, peace and security and informed decision-making. How are these challenges being addressed in the education system today?

      2           To what extent has the content on human rights education been integrated and infused in the Primary school curriculum?

      3        “The denial of education and selective inclusion of human rights content in the school   curriculum amounts to human right abuse as far as education is concerned”. Discuss

II. EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY (JOHN DEWEY:  (Oct 20, 1859 – Jn 1,1952)

He was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey was an important early developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and one of the founders of functional psychology. He was a major representative of the progressive and progressive populist philosophies of schooling during the first half of the 20th century in the USA.

In his advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—as being major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality.

Dewey asserted that:

·         Complete democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists a fully formed public opinion, accomplished by effective communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter being accountable for the policies they adopt.

·         "Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of humanity are to my mind synonymous."

·         Education and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place.

·         Students thrive in an environment where they are allowed to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in their own learning.

·         The importance of education is not only as a place to gain content knowledge, but also as a place to learn how to live.

·         The purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of one’s full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good.

·         To prepare one for the future life means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities.

·         Education and schooling are instrumental in creating social change and reform. Education is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social consciousness; and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of this social consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction.

·         On educational pedagogy, Dewey argues that the major flaw in this methodology is the inactivity of the student; within this particular framework, "the child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial being who is to be deepened" .

·         For education to be most effective, content must be presented in a way that allows the student to relate the information to prior experiences, thus deepening the connection with this new knowledge.

·         Too much reliance on the child could be equally detrimental to the learning process. Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes a balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student.

·         The present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define instruction. Dewey became one of the most famous proponents of hands-on learning or experiential education, arguing that "if knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind"

·         Many researchers even credit him with the influence of Project Based Learning (PBL) which places students in the active role of researchers.

·         The role that the teacher should play within that process: one should not be one to stand at the front of the room doling out bits of information to be absorbed by passive students. Instead, the teacher’s role should be that of facilitator and guide. “The teacher is not in the school to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as a member of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child and to assist him in properly responding to these influences”.

·         Thus the teacher becomes a partner in the learning process, guiding students to independently discover meaning within the subject area. This philosophy has become an increasingly popular idea within present-day teacher preparatory programs.

Revision questions

            1   John Dewey’s ideas are not practical in view of the overloaded 8 4 4 syllabus. Discuss.

            2   Critique the recent government policy on democratic school governance that seeks to abolish the prefect system in favour of the student council system by August 2012.

III LEARNING FOR THE 21ST CENTURY AND BEYOND

      (A) GENERAL OUTLOOK

Excerpts from a report from a new public-private coalition known as the Partnership for 21st Century Skills articulates a vision of how schools can best prepare students to succeed in the first decades of the 21st century. Central to the report's recommendations is a call for schools to focus on six key elements of 21st century learning:

      1.      Core Subjects: The importance of the core subjects identified in any education system. The challenge here is for schools and policymakers to expand their focus beyond "basic competency" to understanding the core academic content at much higher levels.

      2.      Learning Skills: They need to know how to use their knowledge and skills-by thinking critically, applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing information, comprehending new ideas, communicating, collaborating, solving problems, and making decisions."

      3.      21st Century Tools: Recognizing that "technology is, and will continue to be, a driving force in workplaces, communities, and personal lives in the 21st century," Emphasis should be on the importance of incorporating information and communication technologies into education from the elementary grades upwards.

      4.      21st Century Context: should cover experiences that are relevant to students' lives, connected with the world beyond the classroom, and based on authentic projects.

      5.      21st Century Content: The report's authors believe that certain content essential for preparing students to live and work in a 21st century world is missing from many state and local standards (elaborated later here).

      6.      New Assessments that Measure 21st Century Skills: today’s assessment remains an emerging and challenging field that demands further study and innovation. Recommendations include moving beyond standardized testing as the sole measure of student learning; balancing traditional tests with classroom assessments to measure the full range of students' skills; and using technology-based assessments to deliver immediate feedback.

(B). 21ST CENTURY LEARNING SKILLS AND ICT LITERACY

      (a)    Information and communication technology literacy

§  Thinking and problem-solving skills

§  Critical thinking and systems thinking

§  Problem identification, formulation, and solution

§  Creativity and intellectual curiosity

Using problem-solving tools (such as spreadsheets, decision support, and design tools) to manage complexity, solve problems, and think critically, creatively, and systematically.

      (b)   Information and communication skills

§  Information and media literacy skills

§  Communication skills

Using communication, information processing, and research tools (such as word processing, e-mail, groupware, presentation software, and the Internet) to access, manage, integrate, evaluate, create, and communicate information.

      (c)    Interpersonal and self-direction skills

§  Interpersonal and collaborative skills

§  Self-direction

§  Accountability and adaptability

§  Social responsibility

Using personal development and productivity tools (such as e-learning, time managers, and collaboration tools) to enhance productivity and personal development.

C. 21ST CENTURY CONTENT

            (i)                 Global awareness

§  Using 21st century skills to understand and address global issues

§  Learning from and working collaboratively with individuals representing diverse cultures, religions, and lifestyles in a spirit of mutual respect and open dialogue in personal, work, and community contexts

§  Promoting the study of languages other than English as a tool for understanding other nations and cultures

            (ii)               Financial, economic, and business literacy

§  Knowing how to make appropriate personal economic choices

§  Understanding the role of the economy and the role of business in the economy

§  Applying appropriate 21st century skills to function as a productive contributor within an organizational setting

§  Integrating oneself within and adapting continually to our nation's evolving economic and business environment

            (iii)             Civic literacy

§  Being an informed citizen to participate effectively in government

§  Exercising the rights and obligations of citizenship at local, state, national, and global levels

§  Understanding the local and global implications of civic decisions

§  Applying 21st century skills to make intelligent choices as a citizen

(D)       LIFELONG LEARNING IN THE 21ST CENTURY AND   BEYOND

Lifelong learning is now recognized by educators, governing bodies, accreditation organizations, certification boards, employers, third-party payers, and the general public as one of the most important competencies that people must possess. Promoting lifelong learning as continuous, collaborative, self-directed, active, broad in domain, everlasting, positive and fulfilling, and applicable to one’s profession as well as all aspects of one’s life has emerged as a major global educational challenge. Meeting this challenge will require changes in the way teachers teach and learners learn, as teachers take on a more facilitative role and learners take more responsibility for setting goals, identifying resources for learning, and reflecting on and evaluating their learning. Malcolm S. Knowles, is the “father of adult learning”.

Lifelong Learning: A Definition

defined lifelong learning as “a continuously supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals...to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills and understanding they will require throughout their lifetimes...and to apply them with confidence, creativity, and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances, and environments.”

This definition emphasizes lifelong learning as (a) continuous (it never stops); (b) supportive (it isn’t done alone); (c) stimulating and empowering (it’s self-directed and active, not passive); (d) incorporating knowledge, values, skills, and understanding (it’s more than what we know); (e) spanning a lifetime (it happens from our first breath to our last); (f) applied (it’s not just for knowledge’s sake); (g) incorporating confidence, creativity, and enjoyment (it’s a positive, fulfilling experience); and (h) inclusive of all roles, circumstances, and environments (it applies not only to our chosen profession, but to our entire life) (4).

Lifelong Learning and Traditional Learning

Lifelong learning is more than adult education, which often is restricted to providing people with opportunities to engage in (school-like) learning activities during their adult life.

   The challenge for lifelong learning is to fundamentally rethink learning, teaching, and education for the information age in an attempt to change mind-sets.

     Lifelong learning involves and engages learners of all ages in acquiring and applying knowledge and skills in the context of authentic, self-directed problems.

   By integrating working and learning, people learn within the context of their work on real-world problems.

  The learner’s involvement in goals setting is a prerequisite to motivated and self-regulated learning. Goal setting implies the personal commitment of the learner and is an integral part of learning in life.

  In traditional learning, the goals are fixed and predetermined, providing students with little or no chance of involvement.

   Traditional learning tends to motivate by extrinsic rewards, such as praise from the teacher or others, grades, or financial compensation. As a result, students can develop a dependency on praise, leading to feelings of insecurity and non-development of task motivation.

         Learning flows from a variety of activities, for example, observing how other people do something, discussing with others, asking someone, looking up information, trying something for oneself and learning from trial and error, and reflecting on all the previous activities.

     The mental activities involved in learning may be divided into four categories: (a) social interaction, (b) processing verbal and other symbolic information, (c) direct experience, and (d) reflection.

         In real life, learners decide on the type of activities in which to engage, often with input from others, but the final responsibility is with the learner.

          In traditional learning, most of the regulating is done by the teacher and educational system. This makes learning look like a neat, step-by-step procedure, from the beginning of the book to the end, from the start of the program to the examination. Learning processes in real life are much less predictable and straightforward.

Traits and Skills of Lifelong Learners

Lifelong learning is largely self-directed learning, “a process in which learners take the initiative, with the support and collaboration of others; for increasing self- and social awareness; critically analyzing and reflecting on their situations; diagnosing their learning needs with specific reference to competencies they have helped identify; formulating socially and personally relevant learning goals; identifying human and material resources for learning; choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies; and reflecting on and evaluating their learning.” Steps to lifelong learning can be articulated as:

 (a) reflection,

(b) setting goals,

(c) assessing knowledge and skills,

(d) creating a learning plan,

(e) putting the plan into action, and

(f) evaluating and refocusing...

An individual’s learning potential and the development from novice to expert depend on:

         the development of expertise in learning to learn (knowing what and how to learn),

         having access to a relevant knowledge base to build on, and

         being motivated to learn.

Barriers to Lifelong Learning

Certain obvious issues, such as lack of motivation, time, and adequate resources, can interfere with an individual’s success as an independent adult learner. In addition, more subtle problems, such as a lack of awareness of knowledge deficit, personal reluctance to change, ambivalence (indecisiveness), and group mentality, can also be significant barriers to positive educational change.

Promoting lifelong learning as continuous, collaborative, self-directed, active, broad in domain, everlasting, positive and fulfilling, and applicable to one’s profession as well as all aspects of one’s life has emerged as a major global educational challenge. Meeting this challenge will require changes in the way teachers teach and learners learn, as teachers take on a more facilitative role and learners take more responsibility for setting goals, identifying resources for learning, and reflecting on and evaluating their learning.

Revision Questions

1  Assess the extent to which our Primary and Secondary schools are compliant with the  requirements of the 21^st Century: refer to the content and learning skills.

2          Compare and contrast lifelong to trad