LECTURER TWO:March 5TH, 2019
I. Pre-Socratic
philosophical schools
2. Ancient greek philosophy( 6th century b.c.)
I. Pre-Socratic philosophical schools
A. The Milesians
ü Also:
Monist Materialists/ Cosmologists
ü Philosophers: Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander
ü Description: Materialists -they believed that all things are composed of matter and nothing else //Deviated
from supernatural or mythological explanations.
ü Philosophical Problem: What is the single underlying substance the world is made up of?
ü Responses to the Problem:
ü Thales of
Miletus[1] ; the whole universe composed of
water(in its different forms)
ü Anaximenes : was made of air
ü Heraclitus Later on :
fire
ü Anaximander :Apeiron/ the infinite/ the boundless( unexplainable
substance)
B. Pythagoreanism:
ü Pythagoras of Samos (582-496 BC) introduced
the practical side of philosophy
ü Regarding the
world as perfect harmony, dependent on number,
ü Aimed at
inducing humankind likewise to lead a harmonious life.
ü His doctrine was
adopted and extended by Pythagoreans
ü Followers included Philolaus (470-380 BC), Alcmaeon of Croton, and Archytas (428-347 BC).
C.Ephesian school
ü Heraclitus: on-going
process of perpetual change
is a constant interplay of opposites
ü Xenophenes:...........
ü The Ephesian
philosophers were interested in the natural world and the properties by which
it is was ordered.
ü
Xenophanes and Heraclitus were able to push
philosophical inquiry further than the Milesian school by examining the nature
of philosophical inquiry itself.
ü
In addition, they were also invested in
furthering observations and explanations regarding natural and physical process
and also the functions and processes of the human subjective experience.
ü
Hereclitus
and Xenophenes
both shared interests in analyzing philosophical inquiry as they contemplated
morality and religious belief.
D.
Eleatic School
ü Philosophers: Heraclitus,
Parmenides, Zeno
ü Philosophical Problem: The Problem of change- Is change real or is it
an illusion?.
ü Responses to the Problem:
ü Parmenides: No such thing as change at all. Everything that exists
is permanent, indestructible and unchanging
ü Zeno of Elea (a student of Parmenides) all belief in plurality
and change is mistaken, motion is nothing but an illusion
E. Pluralists
ü Philosophers:
Empedocles, Anaxagoras
ü
ü Philosophical
Problem : Whether reality is reducible to simple elements or it is the case
that its plural?
ü 1.Empedocles: the four classical elements (earth, air,
fire and water)
ü
Anaxagoras: No coming to be : All things were together, After
separation, in everything there is a
share of everything.
F.
Atomists
ü
Philosophers: Leuccippus, Democritus
ü Philosophical Problem: What is
the simplest, tiniest microcosmic component of Physical reality?
ü Response to the Problem:
ü Leucippus : the universe consists of two different
elements, which he called ‘the full’ or ‘solid,’ and ‘the empty’ or ‘void’.
Both the void and the solid atoms within it are thought to be infinite, and
between them to constitute the elements of everything
ü Democritus: Developed the idea of Atomism that all of reality is actually composed of tiny,
indivisible and indestructible building blocks known as atoms,
which form different combinations and shapes within the surrounding void.[2]
E.
Sophists
Sophist from (sophists- from the Greek words for wisdom (sophia) and wise (sophos).
Were itinerant professional teachers and
intellectuals who frequented Athens and other Greek cities in the second half
of the fifth century B.C.E.
Offered young wealthy Greek men an education
in aretē (virtue or excellence).
Philosophers: Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon,
Hippias,Prodicus, Thrasymachus
Philosophical problems:
Nature and Convention: Distinction between Physis and Nomos.
Relativism: Man is the measure of all things that are, that they are and that are not that they are not(Protagoras):
Language and Reality
The sophists were interested in particular with the role of human discourse in the shaping of reality. Given their educational program, the sophists placed great emphasis upon the power of speech (logos)
QN. What is the distinction between Philosophy and Sophistry?
II. Classical
: Greek Philosophy
A.
Socrates of
Athens
ü Philosophy
really took off, though, with Socrates and Plato in the 5th - 4th Century B.C. (often referred to as the Classical
or Socratic period of
philosophy).
ü Unlike most of
the Pre-Socratic philosophers
before him, Socrates was more
concerned with how people should behave,
and so was perhaps the first major philosopher of Ethics.
ü He developed a
system of critical reasoning in
order to work out how to live properly
and to tell the difference between right
and wrong.
ü His system,
sometimes referred to as the Socratic
Method, was to break problems down into a series of questions, the answers to which would gradually distill a solution.
ü Although he
was careful to claim not to have all the answers himself, his constant questioning made him many
enemies among the authorities of Athens who eventually had him put to death.
ü Socrates himself never
wrote anything down, and what we know of his views comes from the "Dialogues" of his
student Plato.
B.
Plato: Politics,
Education(To be covered in Philosophy of Education Section)
C.
Aristotle: Natural Philosophy, Metaphysics
ü Turning to
Christian philosophy, concerned with the nature of God.
ü Augustine argued that’’ it is better to try to achieve truth and fail than not try at all’’.
ü He wanted to
proof the existence of God through reasoning (logic)
ü Thomas Aquinas- cosmological argument that ‘’ everything that exists has a cause, but
since there could not be an infinite chain of causes back into the past, there
must have been un uncaused first cause’’ this is God
Everything
has some goodness and the cause of each thing is better than the thing caused. Therefore, the first cause is the
best possible thing.
ü St. Anselm came up with Ontological argument that
‘’God has all possible good features.
Existence is good and therefore God has it and therefore exist’’
4. Rennaissance Philosophy
Rebirth-
transition between theological philosophy and modern thought.
Characterized by
scientific revolution physics, astronomy, biology, chemistry led to rejection
of rationalist doctrines and laid the foundation of modern science.
Religion,
superstition and fear were replaced by reason and knowledge despite challenges
to Roman Catholic dogma.
Notable figures
of scientific revolution were Copernicus,
Kepler, Newton, Galileo Galile
ü 5. Modern Philosophy
ü Revival of
skepticism and centered between experience and reality.
ü Rene Descartes- concerned with mind-body
problem and doubted his own existence.
Other notable figures include
Emmanuel Kant,
William James-
pragmatism
Kierkegaard-
existentialism
Karl mark-social
materialist philosophy
6. Contemporary Philosophy
ü Philosophy of 20th
century to present day
ü The 21st
century philosophers continues to carry with it much of the philosophical
debate seen in the former century
ü Variety of new
topics has risen to the stage resurrecting ethics into the modern philosophical
discussion e.g. internet has brought back interest in the philosophy of
technology and science.
1.2. METHODS AND CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY
1.2.1. Methods of Technical Philosophy
a. Critical Method
The term ‘critical’ is derived
from a Greek verb Krinein meaning to
judge. It involves subjecting of values, facts, principles, conversations and
assumptions; usually taken for granted to severe questioning. This is meant to
encourage honesty of thought. It seeks to protect man from fanaticism and
hypocrisy, intolerance and dogmatism, slogans and ideologies in order to
liberate man from narrow mindedness. This method is also called the Socratic
method. It is liberating and constructive in the sense that it seeks to
evaluate, to judge things in the light of clear and distinct ideas.
b. Analytical
Method (The Rational Method)
It emphasized the need for
logical and systematic thinking. Its greatly interested in logic being the art
of correct reasoning. It consists of analysis and synthesis. Analysis method
has to do with breaking issued into parts and by the power of systematic and
logical thinking in order to arrive at a clear understanding. Such thinking
must not be haphazard or confusing; it should be clear making the necessary
distinctions separating clearly what is essential, what matters from what is
accidental and of less importance. It classified as primarily analytical
thinking because it cuts an issue into parts, analyses concepts and statements.
In addition, the method seeks to analyse concepts, statements and the language
used in different contexts in order to clarify and justify
meanings.Philosophical synthesis has to do with putting together the various
parts of an idea to form a whole. It is used to complement philosophical
analysis. Where else analysis breaks an issue into small parts, synthesis
brings together the parts. The aim is to see something in its totality, see the
inter-relationship and the overall framework. The limitation with the rational
method is its sole reliance on mind as the source of knowledge neglecting
ordinary sense experiences. Rationalists are thus regarded as idealists who do
not live in the real world.
c. The Speculative Method (Creativity)
Also called the metaphysical function.
To speculate is to make an intelligent/rational guess. It endeavors to
challenge the human mind as far as possible, to its ultimate limits in
trying to understand what is apparently incomprehensible. Man is not
satisfied with knowing what happens to him, he also wants to know why. Basic
issues of concern in life include; death, suffering happiness. There is no
simple answer and many people explain or clarify them in religious terms
believing religion will give the final answer. Philosophers however
prefer to explain these issues by use of human reason; they want to challenge
the human mind as far as possible in trying to understand the incomprehensible.
Speculation is very well utilized in a research hypothesis.
d. Phenomenological Method
The term phenomenology originated
from the Greek word ‘phenomenon’ meaning appearance and logia meaning
knowledge. It designates the description or study of appearance especially if
the appearances are sustained and penetrating. It considers the actual staring
point of investigation to be the actual things as they appear, in their
essential reality through experience. Things will appear different from one
person to another. A philosopher’s concern is not the differences but to
discover the underlying meaning and thus arrive at a deeper understanding of
phenomena. By reflecting on an everyday human experience e.g. Of pain, joy,
fear, frustration, a philosopher is able to explain the experience in concrete
terms indicating in which manner the experience affects one’s life, whole being
or existence. It involves a non-biased, non-prejudiced stance in examining
phenomenon. Here, preconceived theoretical speculations are abandoned.
1.2.2. Content of Philosophy
a Classical Branches
of Technical Philosophy
i. Epistemology
What is Epistemology?
This is the philosophical study
of knowledge. Epistemology is derived from two Greek words: episteme
(knowledge) and logia (study). It deals with philosophical reflection on issues
related to knowledge. Epistemology does not deal with factual knowledge such as
that which socio-sciences are involved. empirical sciences like Psychology and
sociology study issues by describing in a factual manner what they have
observed about human knowledge e.g. in cognitive development, a Psychologist
will talk about how it differs in relation to age, individual and the society.
The philosopher on the other hand will not inform on facts and try to
justify; instead, he will think before and after the scientist does his work
thereby challenging the scientist. Epistemology distinguishes clearly between rationalism (which stresses the role of
intellect in knowledge acquisition) and empiricism
(pays attention to sense experience).
It studies the nature,
sources and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer questions like:
What is knowledge? How do we know?What
is truth ? What can we really know/ What
does it mean to say that I know something? What are the sources of knowledge?
ii. Axiology
What is Axiology?
It is the philosophical/rational
study of values. The term is derived from Greek words logia (study) and axia
(values).
Can
Axiology be analyzed further?
It is subdivided into the
following sub branches:
Ethics
or moral philosophy – reflects on the origin and nature of moral values:
meaning of what is right and wrong.
Aesthetics
– philosophical study of artistic values. Interested in meaning of beauty, art.
Social
and cultural philosophy – study of values related to societies and cultures
Political
philosophy – deals with study of politics, governance etc.
The philosophical study of values
is restricted to the prescriptive domains. Values fall under three categories:
Objective – values considered
to be universal e.g. good, truth, beauty, freedom, love.
Relative – values that
depends on personal preference.
Hierarchical – ordering
values from the least desirable to the most desirable.
