EDF211/2

LECTURER TWO:March 5^TH, 2019

 

          I. Pre-Socratic philosophical schools

2. Ancient greek philosophy( 6th century b.c.)

     I. Pre-Socratic philosophical schools

A. The Milesians

ü  Also:  Monist Materialists/ Cosmologists

ü  Philosophers: Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander

ü  Description: Materialists -they believed that all things are composed of matter and nothing else //Deviated from supernatural or mythological explanations.

ü  Philosophical Problem: What is the single underlying substance the world is made up of?

ü  Responses to the Problem:

ü  Thales of Miletus[1] ; the whole universe composed of  water(in its different forms)

ü  Anaximenes : was made of air

ü  Heraclitus Later on :  fire

ü  Anaximander :Apeiron/ the infinite/ the boundless( unexplainable substance)

B. Pythagoreanism:

ü  Pythagoras of Samos (582-496 BC) introduced the practical side of philosophy

ü  Regarding the world as perfect harmony, dependent on number,

ü  Aimed at inducing humankind likewise to lead a harmonious life.

ü  His doctrine was adopted and extended by Pythagoreans

ü  Followers included Philolaus (470-380 BC), Alcmaeon of Croton, and Archytas (428-347 BC).

C.Ephesian school

ü  Heraclitus: on-going process of perpetual change is  a constant interplay of opposites

ü  Xenophenes:...........

ü  The Ephesian philosophers were interested in the natural world and the properties by which it is was ordered.

ü  Xenophanes and Heraclitus were able to push philosophical inquiry further than the Milesian school by examining the nature of philosophical inquiry itself.

ü  In addition, they were also invested in furthering observations and explanations regarding natural and physical process and also the functions and processes of the human subjective experience.

ü  Hereclitus and Xenophenes both shared interests in analyzing philosophical inquiry as they contemplated morality and religious belief.

D. Eleatic School

ü  Philosophers:  Heraclitus, Parmenides, Zeno

ü  Philosophical Problem: The Problem of change- Is change real or is it an illusion?.

ü  Responses to the Problem:

ü  Parmenides: No such thing as change at all. Everything that exists is permanent, indestructible and unchanging

ü  Zeno of Elea (a student of Parmenides) all belief in plurality and change is mistaken, motion is nothing but an illusion

E. Pluralists

ü  Philosophers: Empedocles, Anaxagoras

ü   

ü  Philosophical Problem : Whether reality is reducible to simple elements or it is the case that  its plural?

ü  1.Empedocles:  the four classical elements (earth, air, fire and water)

ü  Anaxagoras:  No coming to be :  All things were together, After separation,  in everything there is a share of everything.

F. Atomists

ü  Philosophers: Leuccippus, Democritus

ü  Philosophical Problem:  What is the simplest, tiniest  microcosmic  component of Physical reality?

ü  Response to the Problem:

ü  Leucippus :  the universe consists of two different elements, which he called ‘the full’ or ‘solid,’ and ‘the empty’ or ‘void’. Both the void and the solid atoms within it are thought to be infinite, and between them to constitute the elements of everything

ü  Democritus: Developed the idea of Atomism that all of reality is actually composed of tiny, indivisible and indestructible building blocks known as atoms, which form different combinations and shapes within the surrounding void.[2]

E. Sophists

Sophist from (sophists- from the Greek words for wisdom (sophia) and wise (sophos).

Were itinerant professional teachers and intellectuals who frequented Athens and other Greek cities in the second half of the fifth century B.C.E.

Offered young wealthy Greek men an education in aretē (virtue or excellence).

Philosophers: Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon, Hippias,Prodicus, Thrasymachus

Philosophical problems:

Nature and Convention: Distinction between Physis and Nomos.

Relativism: Man is the measure of all things that are, that they are and that are not that they are not(Protagoras):

Language and Reality

The sophists were interested in particular with the role of human discourse in the shaping of reality.  Given their educational program, the sophists placed great emphasis upon the power of speech (logos)

QN. What is the distinction between Philosophy and Sophistry?

 

 

 

II.  Classical : Greek Philosophy

A.     Socrates of Athens

ü  Philosophy really took off, though, with Socrates and Plato in the 5th - 4th Century B.C. (often referred to as the Classical or Socratic period of philosophy).

ü  Unlike most of the Pre-Socratic philosophers before him, Socrates was more concerned with how people should behave, and so was perhaps the first major philosopher of Ethics.

ü  He developed a system of critical reasoning in order to work out how to live properly and to tell the difference between right and wrong.

ü  His system, sometimes referred to as the Socratic Method, was to break problems down into a series of questions, the answers to which would gradually distill a solution.

ü  Although he was careful to claim not to have all the answers himself, his constant questioning made him many enemies among the authorities of Athens who eventually had him put to death.

ü  Socrates himself never wrote anything down, and what we know of his views comes from the "Dialogues" of his student Plato.

B.      Plato: Politics, Education(To be covered in Philosophy of Education Section)

C.     Aristotle:  Natural Philosophy, Metaphysics

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3. Medieval Philosophy

ü  Turning to Christian philosophy, concerned with the nature of God.

ü  Augustine argued that’’ it is better to try to achieve truth and fail than not try at all’’.

ü  He wanted to proof the existence of God through reasoning (logic)

ü  Thomas Aquinas- cosmological argument that ‘’ everything that exists has a cause, but since there could not be an infinite chain of causes back into the past, there must have been un uncaused first cause’’ this is God

          Everything has some goodness and the cause of each thing is better than the thing caused.              Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing.

ü  St. Anselm came up with Ontological argument that ‘’God has all possible good features. Existence is good and therefore God has it and therefore exist’’

ü   

4. Rennaissance Philosophy

Rebirth- transition between theological philosophy and modern thought.

Characterized by scientific revolution physics, astronomy, biology, chemistry led to rejection of rationalist doctrines and laid the foundation of modern science.

Religion, superstition and fear were replaced by reason and knowledge despite challenges to Roman Catholic dogma.

Notable figures of scientific revolution were Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Galileo Galile

ü  5. Modern Philosophy

ü  Revival of skepticism and centered between experience and reality.

ü  Rene Descartes- concerned with mind-body problem and doubted his own existence.

Other notable figures include

 Emmanuel Kant,

 William James- pragmatism

 Kierkegaard- existentialism

Karl mark-social materialist philosophy

6. Contemporary Philosophy

ü  Philosophy of 20^th century to present day

ü  The 21^st century philosophers continues to carry with it much of the philosophical debate seen in the former century

ü  Variety of new topics has risen to the stage resurrecting ethics into the modern philosophical discussion e.g. internet has brought back interest in the philosophy of technology and science.

1.2. METHODS AND CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY

1.2.1. Methods of Technical Philosophy

            a. Critical Method

The term ‘critical’ is derived from a Greek verb Krinein meaning to judge. It involves subjecting of values, facts, principles, conversations and assumptions; usually taken for granted to severe questioning. This is meant to encourage honesty of thought. It seeks to protect man from fanaticism and hypocrisy, intolerance and dogmatism, slogans and ideologies in order to liberate man from narrow mindedness. This method is also called the Socratic method. It is liberating and constructive in the sense that it seeks to evaluate, to judge things in the light of clear and distinct ideas.

            b.    Analytical Method (The Rational Method)

It emphasized the need for logical and systematic thinking. Its greatly interested in logic being the art of correct reasoning. It consists of analysis and synthesis. Analysis method has to do with breaking issued into parts and by the power of systematic and logical thinking in order to arrive at a clear understanding. Such thinking must not be haphazard or confusing; it should be clear making the necessary distinctions separating clearly what is essential, what matters from what is accidental and of less importance.  It classified as primarily analytical thinking because it cuts an issue into parts, analyses concepts and statements. In addition, the method seeks to analyse concepts, statements and the language used in different contexts in order to clarify and justify meanings.Philosophical synthesis has to do with putting together the various parts of an idea to form a whole. It is used to complement philosophical analysis. Where else analysis breaks an issue into small parts, synthesis brings together the parts. The aim is to see something in its totality, see the inter-relationship and the overall framework. The limitation with the rational method is its sole reliance on mind as the source of knowledge neglecting ordinary sense experiences. Rationalists are thus regarded as idealists who do not live in the real world.

            c. The Speculative Method (Creativity)

Also called the metaphysical function. To speculate is to make an intelligent/rational guess. It endeavors to challenge the human mind as far as possible, to its ultimate limits in trying  to understand what is apparently incomprehensible. Man is not satisfied with knowing what happens to him, he also wants to know why. Basic issues of concern in life include; death, suffering happiness. There is no simple answer and many people explain or clarify them in religious terms believing religion will give the final answer.  Philosophers however prefer to explain these issues by use of human reason; they want to challenge the human mind as far as possible in trying to understand the incomprehensible. Speculation is very well utilized in a research hypothesis.

            d. Phenomenological Method

The term phenomenology originated from the Greek word ‘phenomenon’ meaning appearance and logia meaning knowledge. It designates the description or study of appearance especially if the appearances are sustained and penetrating. It considers the actual staring point of investigation to be the actual things as they appear, in their essential reality through experience. Things will appear different from one person to another. A philosopher’s concern is not the differences but to discover the underlying meaning and thus arrive at a deeper understanding of phenomena. By reflecting on an everyday human experience e.g. Of pain, joy, fear, frustration, a philosopher is able to explain the experience in concrete terms indicating in which manner the experience affects one’s life, whole being or existence. It involves a non-biased, non-prejudiced stance in examining phenomenon. Here, preconceived theoretical speculations are abandoned.

1.2.2. Content of Philosophy

a Classical Branches of Technical Philosophy       

i. Epistemology

What is Epistemology?

This is the philosophical study of knowledge. Epistemology is derived from two Greek words: episteme (knowledge) and logia (study). It deals with philosophical reflection on issues related to knowledge. Epistemology does not deal with factual knowledge such as that which socio-sciences are involved. empirical sciences like Psychology and sociology study issues by describing in a factual manner what they have observed about human knowledge e.g. in cognitive development, a Psychologist will talk about how it differs in relation to age, individual and the society. The philosopher on the other hand  will not inform on facts and try to justify; instead, he will think before and after the scientist does his work thereby challenging the scientist. Epistemology distinguishes clearly between rationalism (which stresses the role of intellect in knowledge acquisition) and empiricism (pays attention to sense experience).

 It studies the nature, sources and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer questions like:

    What is knowledge? How do we know?What is truth ? What can we really know/       What does it mean to say that I know something? What are the sources of knowledge?

ii. Axiology

What is Axiology?

It is the philosophical/rational study of values. The term is derived from Greek words logia (study) and axia (values).

     Can Axiology be analyzed further?

It is subdivided into the following sub branches:

      Ethics or moral philosophy – reflects on the origin and nature of moral values: meaning of what is right and wrong.

      Aesthetics – philosophical study of artistic values. Interested in meaning of beauty, art.

      Social and cultural philosophy – study of values related to societies and cultures

      Political philosophy – deals with study of politics, governance etc.

What are the categories of values studied under Axiology?

The philosophical study of values is restricted to the prescriptive domains. Values fall under three categories:

Objective – values considered to be universal e.g. good, truth, beauty, freedom, love.

Relative – values that depends on personal preference.

Hierarchical – ordering values from the least desirable to the most desirable.