Lecture 07: Education and values:
Normative dimension of Education
Duration: 3 Hours
7.2. Objectives
By
the end of this topic, the learner should be able to :
1. Identify three approaches to study of
ethics
2.
Relate Ethical theories to the educational process
3.
Name at least three source of morality
4.
Identify three different types of punishment in school
5.
Discuss the relevance of aesthetics to education
A.
Definitions
1.
Axiology
-from
Greek Axia/Axios(Worthy-valuable) and Logos(the study/reasoning ).Axiology is
therefore the study of that which is worthy(valuable)//the philosophical study
of values(what is good or right, desirable or worthwhile and what ought to be
praiseworthy)
2.
Norms-
From Greek Nomos. Nomos means
standards or criteria. It refers to criteria used to determine what is worthy. Norms
therefore tell us what ought to or ought
not be done/what should or should not happen ideally speaking.
3.
Normative
dimension of education refers to norms or standards that
are to be recommended for the
educational enterprise which in turn provides general guidelines for education
theory and practice. For example,
Kenya considers education as an important vehicle for attaining the eight goals (norms) of Education in Kenya.
i)
To
foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity,
ii) To promote the social economic,
technological and industrial needs for national development,
iii) To promote individual development
and self fulfillment,
iv) To promote sound moral and
religious values,
v) To promote social equality and
responsibility,
vi) To promote respect for and
development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures,
vii) To promote international
consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations,
viii)To
promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.
4. Good
life- Throughout history, the question ‘what kind of life is good (how
do l ought to live)?’ has been
raised as a normative question. In answer to this question, diverse answers have emerged:
i)
A good life ought to involve maximum
pleasure.
ii) A
good life should include spiritual contemplation.
iii) A
good life ought to be ascetic – involve self denial and elimination of desires.
The responses above indicate that
Value is emphasized by every given society. It affects not only the direction
of morality but also the direction of educational objectives and content.
Can the eight goals of Education in Kenya lead to a good
life?
B. Categorization of values// Branches of axiology
Ethics/
Ethical values: Values that deal with
morality// the study of moral values
Aesthetics/
Aesthetical: Values to do with beauty;
harmony and uniformity.
Social and cultural philosophy – study of
values related to societies and cultures
Political philosophy – deals with study
of politics, governance
This lecture will lay emphasis on
Ethics and Aesthetics
I. Ethics
a. Meaning of Ethics
1. The
term ethics is derived from a Greek noun ‘ethos’ meaning the customs and
conventions of a given community. In this sense, ethics is synonymous with
morality (from latin mores/moralis) i.e. set of norms guiding human conduct.
2. The
study of morality in all its forms. It is primarily an academic exercise, an
intellectual pursuit, a process of inquiry and reflection. Here, ethics refers
to a process whose product becomes morality and ethics.
3. Meta-ethics:
it is concerned with the meaning of moral concepts and statements as well as
their justification. It aims at clarifying such ambiguous words like good, bad,
wrong and right.
b. Approaches to the study of ethics
There are three
approaches namely: Descriptive ethics; Normative
ethics and Analytical ethics:
1. Descriptive Ethics
This is a scientific
study of ethics/morality. It involves the observation of values and the
reasons given for them. It refers to the empirical or descriptive study of
morality which is a set of norms or standards – transitional or otherwise –
that defines guides and regulates good acceptable behaviour among human beings.
Descriptive ethics is characteristic of social sciences such as psychology,
sociology and social anthropology.
Example: Kohlberg's Descriptive ethics,
a psychologist distinguished three levels of moral development namely:
a. Pre-conventional stage:
the child simply perceives right and wrong primarily in terms of reward and
punishment. This is a stage of naïve egocentrism. Rewarding encourages repeat
of certain behavior. The problem with this level in the teaching/learning
process is the impact on those not rewarded; they tend to get discouraged.
b. Conventional stage (of law and
order). This is mainly between the ages of 10 and 13. At
this stage, the child begins to respond
willingly to expectations in the family, group and community. The child
tends to seek approval from parents, teachers and peers by conforming to the
set social conventions. There is a tendency to be loyal.
c. Post-conventional stage (moral autonomy):
this ranges between 15 and 19 years. The young person goes beyond the stage of law and order and seeks to develop own
judgment on matters of morality. The youth specifically tends to respect
democratically determined rules and laws. This stage leads to self determined
moral principles and moral autonomy.
2. Normative Ethics
Normative Ethics
is interested in the rules and norms of society. It attempts to give
fundamental reasons for values/morality. Basically, it seeks to prescribe the
‘ought’ of values. Whereas descriptive
ethics is empirical in character
and relies mainly on the social sciences,
normative ethics is reflective in
nature as it seeks to inquire – rationally into the basic grounds of moral
conduct and theories to justify morality in a philosophical or theological
manner.
Morals do not
stand on their own; they are centrally located between principles and values on
the one hand and laws, rules and regulations on the other hand.
Normative ethics
is primarily concerned with basics; with moral principles and moral values
which lay down norms for moral human conduct/action. Moral or immoral
action is only a possibility with human beings. Animals and non humans are non
moral.
3. Analytical Ethics/Meta-Ethics
This is a more
critical level of the study of ethics. It
goes beyond prescriptions and seeks deeper insights into the justifications of
morality/values. This approach to the study of ethics is at the clarification
of terms and statements that is the meaning of ethical terms and statements as
used in ethics, both in the ordinary and academic sense. It is a form of
linguistic analysis aimed at clarifying and validating.
Example
of Meta-analysis- The concept of Discipline
Advocates of
liberty and freedom oppose any form of externally imposed discipline. They
argue that:
a. A
person must be in to some degree free from external restraint.
b. A
person must exercise freedom of choice.
c. Discipline
is only admissible if it increases or widens or guarantees an individual great
freedom of choice.
On the other
hand, proponents of externally imposed discipline argue that discipline is
justifiable or several reasons:
a. Restores
and preserves the natural authority of the teacher.
b. To
minimize or prevent disorderly behavior which may interfere with the liberties
and rights of others or even of their own.
c. To
help students/learners to be able to choose for themselves and hopefully to
choose to accept the laws.
c. Nature of
actions vis a vis Morality
i.Moral actions;
An action is judged to be moral or immoral
when it is done voluntarily (there was
evidence of intentionality),knowingly(there is evidence that the agent had
adequate knowledge on the nature of actions they were performing or intending
to perform ) and freely(without coercion . When criteria for moral actions
are breached by a moral agent, they are referred to as immoral actions.
ii.
Amoral actions:
These actions are neither immoral nor moral due to
the fact that they do not clearly and conclusively derive from voluntariness, ,
knowledge and Freedom eg When a person is forced to do something or
accidentally does something
iii.
Non moral actions
Are actions that cannot in any circumstance be
evaluated from moral criteria, for example actions done by a mad man, Sneezing
and the urge to sneeze, dosing in class
d. Theories of Ethics
Morality refers
generally to ‘doing the right thing’. It implies action, behavior/conduct. Such
action is considered right (moral) when it is done in accordance with certain principles
generally referred to as theories of moral obligation. These theories provide a
framework within which to judge whether a certain action is morally right or
wrong.
There are two
theories of moral obligation: teleological and deontological
(i)
Teleological theories
They judge a certain action to be good or bad, right or
wrong depending on whether the consequences of that action are desirable or
not. One’s action is judged based on the desirability of the goal. The term
teleology is derived from and ancient Greek word ‘telos’ meaning goal. On the
question of whose ultimate or good ought to be promoted, teleological theories
render two distinctive views i.e.
a.
Ethical universalism
stresses the common good or the general good of all.
b.
Utilitarianism
which coheres with ethical universalism states that something is morally good
if it is useful in promoting good over evil; if it helps to bring about the
greatest happiness of the greatest number.
(ii)
Deontological theories
The word deontology emanates from Greek word ‘Deon’ meaning
duty. Deontological theories emphasise duty meaning actions as judged to be
rules, commandments that prescribe one’s duty. Within the deontological
theories, two views can be distinguished:
a. Rule
deontology; it
involves doing one’s duty or obeying the stated rules, laws at all times.
b.
Act deontology: this theory allows for
individual judgment on what to do and how to do certain actions. The rules and
the laws are considered as a general yardstick.
e. Sources of Morality
i)
Religion: through divine revelation,
religion offers a supernatural source of moral standards. Such revelations are
expressed in terms of laws and guidelines contained in religious writings such
as the bible, Koran etc. Faithfuls of such religions observe morality
because God commands it. These comprise what is called religious ethics.
ii)
Society: there are various social
institutions in it e.g. family has
parental authority, clan has the authority of elders, the school and
teachers authority, the peer group and
public opinion; and national laws are
sources of morality. Social and religious ethics comprise of moral standards
which are external to the individual person. In this case, the centre of moral
authority lies outside the individual; either the divine or human agents. Such
ethics is called heteronymous ethics.
iii)
The individual human person
(autonomous):
here, the source of morality is both human reason
and human conscience. In this case, somebody does something because they
believe it is right or wrong i.e. and individual lays down the norm. The
various sources of morality offer diverse moral guidelines and
principles/multiplicity of values.
f. Morality Values
Theories of
moral value concentrate on the agent rather than the action on the person who
acts. It emphasizes the inculcation of values to the individual as necessary
for moral actions in other words; emphasis is on being and not necessarily
doing. Moral philosophers have identified cardinal virtues that ought to be
inculcated namely prudence, fortitude, temperance and justice.
i)
Prudence;
quality of being cautious and wise in conduct: discreet wisdom applied to
practice.
ii)
Fortitude:
courage in endurance.
iii)
Temperance:
moderation in the exercise of natural appetites and passions.
iv)
Justice;
quality of being fair, integrity, impartiality, rightness and the awarding of
what is due.
g. Punishment
The term punishment means the intentional
and purposeful infliction of pain (of some kind) by a person in authority as a
penalty for what the authority believes to be some wrong done by the offender.
In a school, punishment may take various forms; corporal punishment, withdrawal of privileges and, imposition of
sanctions and detentions.
Education
implies the transmitting of knowledge skills by one who is an authority to
those who are not. To enable this to take place, certain external conditions
must be applied. It is generally expected that the student must be reasonably
orderly and attentive, and the instructions of the teacher must be generally
obeyed. As such, the teacher ought to operate as an authority in what he
teaches and function in authority. The
teacher is required to cultivate the right personality, have mastery of his
teaching content and be conversant with class management in order to naturally
elicit obedience and discipline in his learners. Whenever his/her authority is
challenged, he/she may have to resort to punishment. Punishment would then be
justified in the following ways:
i)
As a means of restoring the position which existed before the offence
took place.
ii)
To prevent a repetition of the offence.
iii)
To restore the teacher’s lost authority as a result of the learner’s
disobedience.
iv) To
cause the learner to learn something i.e. obedience or learning the content as
a result of punishment.
Philosophical
Justification of School Punishment
i)
Utilitarian theory:
according to this theory, punishment is
justified if it excludes a greater evil to the individual or society. In
this case, punishment is not an end in
itself. It is viewed as a means to a
greater good. As such, it is aimed at producing good results, fame of the
school etc. although punishment may look unpleasant, involving pain and
humiliation; this is temporary compared to the good which it is likely to
produce. This theory allows for pressure to be exerted on both the good (non
offenders) and the offenders alike as long as good results can be obtained.
ii)
Retributive theory: it
holds that wrong doing is blameworthy and that some forms of wrong doing should
n..mm,mot only be blamed but that blame should be expressed through that
infliction of pain. In this case, to punish is to repay (restitute) the wrong
done. It holds that an individual should suffer for his mistake/offence. This view
assumes that man is generally free and responsible for his actions. As such,
one can be rationally and logically held responsible for wrongdoing. Punishment
serves as a moral disapproval.
a. Retributive
punishment should not be mistaken with revenge. Such confusion usually
unleashes terror and violence upon the offender unproportionally.
b. The Retributionist
hopes that punishment makes the offender feel, through his/her suffering, the
society’s vehement condemnation of his irresponsible act. It is also hoped that
through this, the offender may feel condemned, accept the punishment as just,
condemn him in sorrow, repent and start on a voluntary enterprise of self
reform.
Criticism of
the retributive theory
It may lead to
communication breakdown between the offender and the person administering
punishment i.e. when the offender feels that it is a personal attack or revenge
by the punisher. This is often the case where no explanations are given before
or after the act of punishment. It is impossible to inflict pain that is
proportional to the offence. The suffering of the injured party cannot be given
back to the offender in the same measure. The offender may cultivate
resentment. In place of the expected sorrow and repentance, one may reserve
anger and repetition. This theory therefore overlooks reassuring and prudence.
The offender may have wronged by mistake or ignorance.
iii)Deterrent
theory: deterrent punishment aims at influencing people by some sort
of fear so that they will not do/repeat the wrong. The theory holds that:
inflict pain on or after the occasion of wrong doing. This will tend to
condition the offender towards the avoidance of the offence in future.
Deterrent punishment is necessary in schools if social order is to be
maintained because:
o
It deters others from breaking rules.
o
It prevents others from a greater evil.
o
It reforms the culprit eliciting better
behaviour.
It is utilitarian
because it aims at correction as well as bringing about a good life. However, only
those who have willingly/voluntarily wronged should be punished. But those who
genuinely committed offences out of ignorance should be treated otherwise.
Deterrent punishment should aim at the understanding of the offender concerning
the offence i.e. society’s approval and the urgent need to reform. It is a form
of conditioning. In order to be administered effectively, the teacher should
understand its effectiveness in application to different personality types.
h. Discipline
The term discipline
originates from the Latin ‘discere’ meaning to learn or to conform to specific
order. The concept of discipline in education may be defined as a relationship
of submission or obedience to some sort of order. Discipline implies three
distinctive meanings:
The imposing by some persons on others of restraints backed by sanctions
of some kind. Here, it refers to external control of a person’s restraint.
It may mean self-discipline that consists of exercising one’s freedom of
choice in which case one must be reasonably free from external restraint.
It may mean the discipline that is freely accepted when one decides to
put oneself under an order of some kind i.e. the order of religion or morality
of an art or the discipline of an academic subject. This advocates for liberty
and f
II. Aesthetics and Education
DEFINITION
OF AESTHETICS
The term
Aesthetics is derived from Greek word Aisthanesthai
which means to perceive. It points
to the relationships that human senses (visual, Tactile, olfactory, taste and
auditory senses) build when they grasp nature or art. It is the sum total of
feelings aroused by the sensual experiences, the character of the experience of
the things themselves and the subjective judgment of desirability related with
perceiving physical entities or actions. Desirability condition of Aesthetics
is pegged on empiricism, and as such it be can be re-defined as the
Philosophical study of Beauty.
CRITERIA
FOR BEAUTY
I. Platonian threefold criteria: Plato
posits a tripartite criteria for beauty; Proportion, Harmony and Unity.
a. Mathematical Proportionality as a
determinant of Beauty: What is beautiful is thus
mathematically proportional in its constituent elements. The bigger the
difference in ratios the uglier an entity, the smaller the ratio equivalence
the more beautiful an entity.
b. Harmony as a determinant of Beauty:
In
regards to harmony, the different parts of an entity must necessarily function
together for that entity to be perceived as beautiful. The Platonian concept of
harmony is based on co-relationality and co-functionality of the parts in a
whole.
c. Unity as a determinant of Beauty: The
concept of unity infers the oneness of beauty. Whatever is beautiful is such
that it is not disjointed and disintegrated but possess unity as a
transcendental property.
II. Beauty according to Aristotle:
According to Aristotle beauty is Order, Symmetry and 'Determinateness'.
a.
Order
as premise of Beauty: Order of things that exist
according to Aristotle's supreme genera
includes Quantity, Quality, Place, Time Relation, condition, Action,
receptivity, position and substance. The supreme genera in which Aristotle
ordered reality is a significant criteria for determining what is beautifully
because then everything should be placed or conceived to be placed in its
correct category. For instance ugliness implies confusing time with space, or a
thing X being located in a wrong place or at a
wrong time, What is beautiful is beautiful therefore that which is in its right place
and being present there at the right time with the right condition, performing
the correct action.
b. Symmetry as a premise of Beauty: Aristotle
envisions two aspects of symmetry as a foundation of Beauty: The mathematical
symmetry and the ontological symmetry. From mathematical perspective, Aristotle
considers the circle to be the most perfect form; the heavenly bodies must
therefore all orbit the earth in perfect, circular uniform motion. The symmetry
of circularity is determined by the equivalence of the semicircles which must
of necessity be equal or appear to be equal to each other. The central line or
diameter in Aristotelian circle is therefore a determinant factor in beauty.
Further the beauty of a circle is based on its continuity. It has neither
beginning nor end and so is beauty. From ontological perspective, Act and
potency determine the beauty of a an
entity in that the being-ness of any entity is a circularity between
transitions from act to potency and from potency to act .
c. Determinateness as Premise of Beauty: The concept of determinateness as a
criterion of aesthetics is premised on the nature of the relation between Genus
and Species. Genus and differentia are best viewed in terms of
determinable and determinate yet a determinate is neither a conjunction of its
determinable. Neither is it something else distinct from its determinable. The
beauty of an entity is thus the associative relation between the Genus and the
species of entities which are commutatively the determinate and the
determinable.
AESTHETICS IN EDUCATION
a. Curriculum content that promotes beauty:
An aesthetical curriculum lays emphasis on knowing by perceiving. Beauty is perceived first as an empirical
predicate then assessed as a mental object. As such curriculum would not miss
content in the physical sciences which are simply an expression of the beauty
of the natural world. It should also include cosmetics, and creative arts and
crafts to sooth the visual percept, performing arts and music as extensions of
langue to entertain the acoustic percept, Domestic and catering sciences to
evoke the power of taste. Thigmo sciences
and arts like acupressure, acupuncture, massage and spa to activate the power
of the touch. Children at their earlier
years need to be exposed to adequate play, and the older ones and adults to
sports and physical fitness to sensitize the senses otherwise beauty curriculum
can either be boring or can lead to addiction.
b. Method of delivery of an aesthetic
curriculum. Apart from content itself, the way in which content is
delivered can either be aesthetic or otherwise. A teacher is good not by how
much he knows but buy how he delivers what he knows. A good delivery involves
using diverse and creative approaches; monotony leads to aesthetic lethargy and
disinterest in learning. Tonal
variations for instance are not just used in music festivals but also in a
class room delivery. An aesthetic teacher pats his student on the back, greets
them, and maintains respectful physical contact with the learners. Teaching
aids should appeal to most or all the five senses and should have aspects of
proportionality.
c. Learning Environment: Learning
environment is a space specifically set aside for the specific reason of
learning and instruction. Its comportment, structure, content and divisions
affect the learning process. It is directly an aesthetical space and being so
it influences the efficacy of learning through the perception the learners
attribute to it. In Educational set up for instance an ugly classroom might be
one in which there is disproportionate arrangement of lockers and chairs let's
say absence of rows, or most of the chairs being heaped on one side while
leaving an empty unused space. It can also be a dirty and disorderly learning
environment activates a feeling of disgust.The stronger the feeling of disgust
the more the concentration on resolving the disgust than on learning.
d. Grooming for Educational ends: A
teacher or a learner worse dress code is ugly would be considered as one whose
ratio of clothes do not match, or whose colors are not harmonious with each
other. A neatly clad teacher or learner exudes confidence, which is necessary
for effective learning. Indecent dress codes are not just unethical but also unaesthetic
because they invoke both conceptive and
perceptive disgust.
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