The term
Aesthetics is derived from Greek word Aisthanesthai
which means to perceive.It points
to the relationships that human senses (visual, Tactile, olfactory, taste and
auditory senses) build when they grasp nature or art. It is the sum total of
feelings aroused by the sensual experiences, the character of the experience of
the things themselves and the subjective judgment of desirability related with
perceiving physical entities or actions. Desirability condition of Aesthetics
is pegged on empiricism, and as such it be can be re-defined as the
Philosophical study of Beauty.
CRITERIA
FOR BEAUTY
I. Platonian threefold criteria: Plato
posits a tripartite criteria for beauty; Proportion, Harmony and Unity.
a.Mathematical Proportionality as a
determinant of Beauty: What is beautiful is thus
mathematically proportional in its constituent elements. The bigger the
difference in ratios the uglier an entity, the smaller the ratio equivalence
the more beautiful an entity.
b.Harmony as a determinant of Beauty:
In
regards to harmony, the different parts of an entity must necessarily function
together for that entity to be perceived as beautiful. The Platonian concept of
harmony is based on co-relationality and co-functionality of the parts in a
whole.
c.Unity as a determinant of Beauty: The
concept of unity infers the oneness of beauty. Whatever is beautiful is such
that it is not disjointed and disintegrated but possess unity as a
transcendental property.
II. Beauty according to Aristotle:
According to Aristotle beauty is Order, Symmetry and 'Determinateness'.
a.Order
as premise of Beauty: Order of things that exist
according to Aristotle's supreme genera
includes Quantity, Quality, Place, Time Relation, condition, Action,
receptivity, position and substance. The supreme genera in which Aristotle
ordered reality is a significant criteria for determining what is beautifully
because then everything should be placed or conceived to be placed in its
correct category. For instance ugliness implies confusing time with space, or a
thing X being located in a wrong place or at awrong time, What is beautiful is beautifultherefore that which is in its right place
and being present there at the right time with the right condition, performing
the correct action.
b.Symmetry as a premise of Beauty: Aristotle
envisions two aspects of symmetry as a foundation of Beauty: The mathematical
symmetry and the ontological symmetry. From mathematical perspective, Aristotle
considers the circle to be the most perfect form; the heavenly bodies must
therefore all orbit the earth in perfect, circular uniform motion. The symmetry
of circularity is determined by the equivalence of the semicircles which must
of necessity be equal or appear to be equal to each other. The central line or
diameter in Aristotelian circle is therefore a determinant factor in beauty. Further
the beauty of a circle is based on its continuity. It has neither beginning nor
end and so is beauty. From ontological perspective, Act and potency determine
the beauty of aan entity in that the
being-ness of any entity is a circularity between transitions from act to
potency and from potency to act .
c.Determinateness as Premise of Beauty: The concept of determinateness as a
criterion of aesthetics is premised on the nature of the relation between Genus
and Species. Genus and differentia are best viewed in terms of
determinable and determinate yet a determinate is neither a conjunction of its
determinable. Neither is it something else distinct from its determinable. The
beauty of an entity is thus the associative relation between the Genus and the species
of an entities which are commutatively the determinate and the determinable.
AESTHETICS IN EDUCATION
a. Curriculum content that promotes beauty:
An aesthetical curriculum lays emphasis on knowing by perceiving.Beauty is perceived first as an empirical
predicate then assessed as a mental object. As such curriculum would not miss
content in the physical sciences which are simply an expression of the beauty
of the natural world. It should also include cosmetics, and creative arts and
crafts to sooth the visual percept, performing arts and music as extensions of
langue to entertain the acoustic percept, Domestic and catering sciences to
evoke the power of taste. Thigmo
sciences and arts like acupressure, acupuncture, massage and spa to activate
the power of the touch.Children at
their earlier years need to be exposed to adequate play, and the older ones and
adults to sports and physical fitness to sensitize the senses otherwise beauty
curriculum can either be boring or can lead to addiction.
b. Method of delivery of an aesthetic
curriculum. Apart from content itself, the way in which content is
delivered can either be aesthetic or otherwise. A teacher is good not by how
much he knows but buy how he delivers what he knows. A good delivery involves
using diverse and creative approaches; monotony leads to aesthetic lethargy and
disinterest in learning.Tonal
variations for instance are not just used in music festivals but also in a
class room delivery. An aesthetic teacher pats his student on the back, greets
them, and maintains respectful physical contact with the learners. Teaching
aids should appeal to most or all the five senses and should have aspects of
proportionality.
c. Learning Environment: Learning
environment is a space specifically set aside for the specific reason of
learning and instruction. Its comportment, structure, content and divisions
affect the learning process. It is directly an aesthetical space and being so
it influences the efficacy of learning through the perception the learners
attribute to it. In Educational set up for instance an ugly classroom might be
one in which there is disproportionate arrangement of lockers and chairs let's
say absence of rows, or most of the chairs being heaped on one side while
leaving an empty unused space. It can also be a dirty and disorderly learning
environment activates a feeling of disgust.The stronger the feeling of disgust
the more the concentration on resolving the disgust than on learning.
d. Grooming for Educational ends: A
teacher or a learner worse dress code is ugly would be considered as one whose
ratio of clothes do not match, or whose colors are not harmonious with each
other. A neatly clad teacher or learner exudes confidence, which is necessary
for effective learning. Indecent dress codes are not just unethical but also unaesthetic
because they invoke both conceptive and
perceptive disgust.
AESTHETICS AND CREATIVITY ILLUSTRATED IN SCHOOL SET UP
EDUCATION AND VALUES:
THE NORMATIVE DIMENSION OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Definitions
Axiology fromGreek
Axia/Axios(Worthy) and Logos(the study)
Axiology; The study of that which is worthy //the
philosophical study of values(what is good or right, desirable or worthwhile
and what ought to be praiseworthy.
)
What is worthy is determinedsome criteria known as norms
Norms therefore tell us what ought to or ought not be
done/what should or should not happen ideally speaking.
Normative dimension
of education refers to norms or standards that are to be recommended for
the educational enterprise which in turn provide general guidelines for
education theory and practice. For example, Kenya consider education as an
important vehicle for attaining the eight goals of Education in Kenya.
1. To foster
nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity,
2. To promote the
social economic, technological and industrial needs for national development,
3. To promote
individual development and self fulfilment,
4. To promote sound
moral and religious values,
5. To promote social
equality and responsibility,
6. To promote
respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures,
7. To promote
international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other
nations,
8. To promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental
protection.
What is good life?: Throughout history, the question ‘what kind of
life is good (how do l ought I to live)?’ has been raised. In
answer to this question, diverse answers have emerged:
· A good life ought to involve maximum pleasure.
·A good life should include spiritual contemplation.
·A good life ought to be ascetic – involve self denial and elimination of
desires. Value is emphasized by a given society. It affects not only the direction
of morality but also the direction of educational objectives and content.
Can
the eight goals of Education in Kenya lead to good life?
CATEGORIZATION OF
VALUES// BRANCHES OF AXIOLOGY
Ethics/ Ethical
values:Values that deal with morality// the study of moral
values
Aesthetics/
Aesthetical:Values to do with beauty; harmony and uniformity.
ETHICS
The term ethics is derived from a
Greek noun ‘ethos’ meaning:
·The customs and conventions of a given community. In this sense, ethics
is synonymous with morality i.e. set of norms guiding human conduct.
·The study of morality in all its forms. It is primarily an academic
exercise, an intellectual pursuit, a process of inquiry and reflection. Here,
ethics refers to a process whose product becomes morality and ethics.
·Meta-ethics: it is concerned with the meaning of moral concepts and
statements as well as their justification. It aims at clarifying such ambiguous
words like good, bad, wrong and right.
Approaches to the Study of
Ethics
There are three approaches
namely: Descriptive ethics; Normative ethics and Analytical ethics:
I
Descriptive Ethics
This is a scientific study of
ethics/morality. It involves the observation of values and the reasons
given for them.
It refers to the empirical or
descriptive study of morality which is a set of norms or standards –
transitional or otherwise – that defines, guides and regulates good acceptable
behaviour among human beings.
Descriptive ethics is
characteristic of social sciences such as psychology, sociology and social
anthropology.
Examples: Kohlberg's Descriptive
ethics, a psychologist distinguished three levels of moral development namely:
(a)Pre-conventional stage: the child simply perceives right and wrong
primarily in terms of reward and punishment. This is a stage of naïve
egocentrism. Rewarding encourages repeat of certain behaviour. The problem with
this level in the teaching/learning process is the impact on those not
rewarded; they tend to get discouraged.
(b)Conventional stage (of law and order). This is mainly between the
ages of 10 and 13. At this stage, the child
begins to respond willingly to expectations in the family, group and
community. The child tends to seek approval from parents, teachers and peers by
conforming to the set social conventions. There is a tendency to be loyal.
(c)Post-conventional stage
(moral autonomy): this ranges between 15 and 19 years. The young person goes beyond the stage of law and order and
seeks to develop own judgment on matters of morality. The youth
specifically tends to respect democratically determined rules and laws. This
stage leads to self determined moral principles and moral autonomy.
Sources of Morality
(a)Religion: through divine revelation, religion offers a supernatural
source of moral standards. Such revelations are expressed in terms of laws and
guidelines contained in religious writings such as the bible, Koran etc.
Faithfuls of such religions observe morality because God commands it.
These comprise what is called religious ethics.
(b)Society: there are various
social institutions in it e.g. family has
parental authority, clan has the authority of elders, the school and
teachers authority, the peer group
and public opinion; and national laws
are sources of morality. Social and religious ethics comprise of moral
standards which are external to the individual person. In this case, the centre
of moral authority lies outside the individual; either the divine or human
agents. Such ethics is called heteronymous
ethics.
(c)The individual human person (autonomous): here, the source of
morality is both human reason and human
conscience. In this case, somebody does something because they believe it
is right or wrong i.e. and individual lays down the norm. The various sources
of morality offer diverse moral guidelines and principles/multiplicity of
values.
II
Normative Ethics
Normative Ethics is interested in
the rules and norms of society. It attempts to give fundamental reasons for
values/morality. Basically, it seeks to prescribe the ‘ought’ of values.
Whereas descriptive ethics is empirical in character and relies mainly
on the social sciences, normative ethics
is reflective in nature as it seeks
to inquire – rationally into the basic grounds of moral conduct and theories to
justify morality in a philosophical or theological manner.
Morals do not stand on their own;
they are centrally located between principles and values on the one hand and
laws, rules and regulations on the other hand.
Normative ethics is primarily
concerned with basics; with moral principles and moral values which lay down
norms for moral human conduct/action. Moral or immoral action is only a
possibility with human beings. Animals and non humans are non moral.
Nature of actions
Moral actions; action is judged to be
moral or immoral when it is done voluntarily
or intentionally. When a person is forced to do something or accidentally
does something or is in sane or mentally damaged, such a person cannot be said
to be morally responsible for the action.
·Immoral
actions:
·Amoral
actions:
·
Morality Principles
Morality refers generally to
‘doing the right thing’. It implies action, behavior/conduct. Such action is
considered right (moral) when it is done in accordance with certain principles
generally referred to as theories of moral obligation. These theories provide a
framework within which to judge whether a certain action is morally right or
wrong.
There are two theories of moral
obligation: teleological and deontological
(a)Teleological theories
They judge a certain
action to be good or bad, right or wrong depending on whether the consequences
of that action are desirable or not. One’s action is judged based on the
desirability of the goal. The term teleology is derived from and ancient Greek
word ‘telos’ meaning goal. On the question of whose ultimate or good ought to
be promoted, teleological theories render two distinctive views i.e.
·Ethical universalism stresses the common good or the general good of
all.
·Utilitarianism which coheres with ethical universalism states that
something is morally good if it is useful in promoting good over evil; if it
helps to bring about the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
(b)Deontological theories
The word deontology
emanates from Greek word ‘Deon’ meaning duty. Deontological theories emphasise
duty meaning actions as judged to be rules, commandments that prescribe one’s
duty. Within the deontological theories, two views can be distinguished:
·Rule deontology; it involves
doing one’s duty or obeying the stated rules, laws at all times.
·Act deontology:
this theory allows for individual judgment on what to do and how to do certain
actions. The rules and the laws are considered as a general yardstick.
Aspects of Education: Aims, Curriculum,
Role of Teacher, Role of Learner, Assessment, Learning Environment, Pedagogy,
Educational issues
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Definition
1.Philosophy
of Education is the applicationof
PhilosophicalPrinciples, theories,language of philosophy and methods to analyze,
evaluate or solveeducational issues.
2.It
is both theprocess and the outcome of
philosophical thinking about education.
3.Philosophy
of education is first of all an educational discipline and it belongs to the
mind of educationist. It is classified together with other educational
disciplines such as history of education, sociology of education, comparative
education etc.
4.Education
is the main focus in all these disciplines. However, what makes them different
is the way they approach the study because each one of them follows its own
distinct approach in terms of content, methods and language.
5.Philosophy
of education is also an integral part of technical philosophy because it’s an
area of specialization in the area of philosophy just like philosophy of
science, philosophy of law etc.
6.Therefore,
we can say the application of philosophy of education can be seen as the
application of philosophy to the field of education where philosophy is the
abstract (Theory) and education is practice.
Technical vs General Philosophy
General Philosophy of Education
1.This
refers to the common sense notion of what education ought to be.
2.It
refers to the personal view or attitude concerning the ideal education.
3.It
refers also to the preferred slogans concerning education such as ‘education
for self reliance, education for gender equity’ etc.
4.In
a school setting, it refers to the school motto. In most cases, these
philosophies are varied, vague and are not based on systematic thought of what
type of man they want to produce.
5.Education
commission reports contain general philosophical perspectives about education.
Technical Philosophy of
Education
1.Technical
or professional philosophy of education refers to the thorough and in-depth
reflection on education.
2.This
is done using philosophical methods, tools and techniques in investigating
problems of formal schooling.
3.In
this case, the process as well as the product amounts to philosophy of
education. This means that the process of asking questions and criticizing
issues in education as well as development of a clear statement of a positive
and more rational alternative in education comprises of philosophy of
education.
4.Technical
philosophy of education is an integral part of formal philosophy. It is the
exclusive domain of professional philosophers and of academic scholars
concerned with the study of education.
5.It
is basically/largely Western in orientation attributed to Western Thinkers and
educationists such as Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Dewey etc.
Development/Establishment of Philosophy
of Education
The origin of
educational philosophy dates back to the beginning of the last century and to
the time and work of John Dewey. However, we cannot ignore the contributions
which had been made by earlier philosophers to the study of philosophy of
education.
a.)General
Remarks on Platoand Confucius
1.Plato
2.Confucius
b. J.S. Herbert and J. Dewey
1.J.S. Herbert
(1771-1834)
1.He
was a Germany philosopher and his work was greatly influenced by contribution
of other scholars like Kant and his area of specialization was ethics.
According to Herbert, the purpose of education is to develop the moral
character of the learner i.e. good moral behavior. He proposed in his book
entitled The Science of Education
five main methods of education as
ØPreparation
ØPresentation
ØAssociation
ØSystematization
ØApplication
2.He
also laid emphasis the importance of authority. To him, the teacher was the
authority during the process of learning. He controlled learners and little
freedom by learners. Europe accepted bur American questioned the idea of the
teacher being the sole authority.
2. John Dewey (1859-1952)
1.He
laidemphasisfreedom and democracy and was the first American to adopt a
critical stand according to European educational theory which had been extended
earlier by Herbert. He come up with philosophy of education which was
systematic in design with American orientation emphasizing progress, change and
democracy.
2.Dewey
reacted strongly against authoritarian approach in education which regarded the
teacher as the sole authority in the classroom. The implication was that he was
against the idea of learners adhering to rigid system of education and against
the idea of education developing moral behavior in the learner.
3.He
suggested an approach of teaching learning that was not teacher centered but
child centered. This approach was seen as not content centered by method
centered. He believed that experience was the best teacher for the learner. He
perceived education as growth and an avenue of creativity. Education came to be
understood in terms of progressive movement thus meant to make the learners
change from one stage to another.
4.Dewey’s
philosophy was built on American thinking of pragmatism. This philosophy is
derived from a Greek concept pragma- to act, to do, achieve. He believed that
good education should make learners realize their potential. Education should
be based on needs, interest and abilities of the learners.
5.He
argued that knowledge can only be found through experience when the learner
interacts with the environment. Education is life in itself and not a
preparation for life. This can only happen if learning is directly linked to
the needs, interests and abilities of learners. The contributions of Dewey are
the ones that lead to great debate in the philosophy of education and he is
regarded as the father of philosophy of education.
Relevance of Philosophy of Education to Teacher Trainees
1.It
provides room for a vision beyond the empirical data of education i.e. seeks to
explain what education is.
2.It
tries to liberate those being educated and their educators from their
shortsightedness. It helps us to enlarge our perception of education as well as
for teaching.
3.It
helps the student to think logically, systematically, consistently and clearly
about educational problems as well as life. The teacher will learn the essence
of clarifying meanings and justifying statements.
4.It
equips teachers with insight into the whole purpose of teaching. Thus, it goes
beyond knowledge of subject matter and competence in teaching skills. Teachers
ought to know what they are doing and why they are doing it.
EDUCATION AND HUMAN
KNOWLEDGE/COGNITIVE DIMENSION OF EDUCATION
Human knowledge falls within
epistemology. Epistemology deals with philosophical reflection of knowledge. It
studies the nature, sources and validity of the knowledge. It attempts to
answer questions about knowledge such as:
(a)
What is knowledge?
(b)
What is the nature of knowledge?
(c)
What are the principles of knowledge?
(d)
What is truth?
(e)
How do we come to know?
(f)
How can we verify knowledge?
(g)
How do we know that we know?
(h)
What can we really know?
(a)What is Knowledge
The concept of knowledge ‘to
know’ can be sub-divided into three aspects:
Knowing that – facts, information or details about something.
Knowing how – having the ability to demonstrate, possession of a skill
or technique.
General familiarity – lack of sufficient details.
(b)The
Conditions of Knowledge
According to I. Scheffer (1965),
there are three conditions of knowledge:
1Belief Condition
Belief is a construction that
something is as it is stated. Anyone who makes a claim to knowledge must
believe that it is so. He must personally accent to the truthfulness of the
claim. This involves the conviction of the claimant. It is different from
opinion (I think) which implies doubt. Believing indicates certainty. To
believe is however not to know: it is just the beginning, more isi required
than mere belief. Believing is more of a psychological state of mind and
knowing is more than a strong conviction. This is necessary for communication/teaching
as it helps one to demonstrate an element of originality.
2Truth Condition
It refers to the actual truth of
what one asserts. Knowing thus points to something independent of the
individual claiming to know – points to the truth of the matter. What one
‘believes’ may not be necessarily the truth as it is universally known. To know
is thus more than believing: it implies that there is actually truth: a matter
of true belief. To establish the truthfulness of a proposition/statement, it
must be subjected to the following theories:
i.Correspondence theories of truth: whatever is
claimed to be true must correspond with reality i.e. must agree with what can
be empirically verified, measured, observed. The major impediment to this theory
is that our verification tools/observation are at times faulty. It is possible
to perceive reality wrongly.
ii.Coherence theory of truth: whatever is
claimed must cohere/agree with what is already accepted/admitted as truth. Any
new knowledge is validated on the basis of the existing knowledge. However,
this theory has limitations. Whatever is known may be untrue or false, one
could possibly be mistaken e.g. the Galileo’s case with the Roman Catholic
Church.
iii.Pragmatic theory: whatever is of utility/value works
and is useful or beneficial or true
iv.Semantic Theory: Truth is based on language use
and manipulation
3Justification/grounds
condition
The claimant must be able to cite
evidence and evidence of the right kind to support/justify his claim. Absolute
certainty is difficult to attain because human knowledge tends to be limited.
Certainty thus remains uncertain or hypothetical. One must always be prepared
to review/reconsider their knowledge in the light of new evidence though
adequacy of evidence is many times a serious problem. Although every claim to
knowledge must be based on some grounds, there are statements which do not
necessarily require evidence. E.g. analytic propositions that are self
explanatory statements; statements based on existential and consciousness i.e.
I feel frustrated. While we insist on evidence, we should exempt analytic
proportions based on existential realities.
c. Sources of Knowledge
i. Authority as a Source of
Knowledge
It refers to people
or individuals who occupy superior positions in relation to the claimant.
Knowledge is here based on what those in authority have said i.e. I know it
because so and so says so. People in authority include parents, teachers,
preachers, authors and journalists. Authority is simply believed. Individuals
rely on authority because they lack time to verify for themselves. Also, there
tends to be lack of commitment to question issues and search for clear
knowledge. In a classroom situation, students tend to believe wholesale whatever
the teacher says. There is therefore a need for care and concern for truth on
the part of the teacher.
Precautions when dealing with
authority:
The person whose statement we believe must be a relevant authority in
the field.
Authorities sometimes disagree. There is need to be careful: sometimes
judgment needs to be suspended before arriving at a conclusion.
Verify information. Whenever we accept the other people’s statements, we
should establish whether they are actually true.
No matter how reliable an
authority is, it cannot be the primary source of knowledge.
ii. Revelation
This is a source
of knowledge from which various religions derive their basic dogma. Although
the truths recorded in sacred books are considered eternal, the language in
which they are written is not hence religious scholars spend much time arguing
over the precise meaning of words and expressions in the sacred textual
interpretation. The purpose this is to bring to light the external truths that
are locked in these words.
iii. Sense experience
Common sense
tells as that sense experience is the starting point of knowledge for we begin
to be conscious at all when we begin to exercise our senses.
If we merely
looked at what occurs in our own lives, and reflect on our own experience, we
realize that our minds, at the onset, are no more than “white paper, void of
all characters, without any ideas” (Locke’s famous Tabula rasa, that is blank tablet) all we know or think about is
ideas which come from experience.
iv.Intuition
The immediate
knowledge of truth, without the aid of any reasoning and without appeal to
experience is called intuition. It is sub-conscious activity, which instantly
reveals into consciousness that which the mind has been at grips for a period
of time.
v.Human reason
The view that
reason is the sole source of knowledge is known as rationalism and the
proponents of this doctrine are called rationalists. The human mind has innate structure that is responsible for a
variety of intellectual competence.
The mind, by its
reasoning power has instinctive capacity to discover knowledge within itself;
knowledge is therefore a product of man’s power of thought and explanation.
Plato claimed
that
man’s knowledge is basically a recollection of the ideas which the soul had
known in the perfect world of ideas before it was buried in the human body.
Education
therefore, is to focus on the soul with the view to helping it recollect as
much of that knowledge as possible.
Rationalists
claim that it is dangerous to rely solely on our senses as they are prone to
being highly insensitive and unreliable. Senses are capable of establishing
conflicting results about the same phenomenon depending on our location, health
condition and even attitude.
Knowledge and Curriculum
Generally, curriculum
refers to knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and skills which are considered
desirable for transmission to others. Knowledge is classified or categorized
within the curriculum based on certain criteria:
1.
Language: each subject tends to have a
particular language e.g. maths -matrix, integral, numbers; religion –
sin, grace, soul etc.
2. Methods of verification or testing: e.g. sciences depend on
empirical observation and tests on experiments while mathematics uses deductive
reasoning.
3.Area
of specialization or subject matter: physical sciences deals with natural
world while social sciences concentrates on the world of culture. Philosophy,
religion and mathematics also deals with distinct areas such as the world of
numbers.
Based on the above
criteria, the following classifications of knowledge have been enunciated:
a. Logic and mathematics.
b. Physical sciences.
c. Human sciences.
d. Aesthetics (e.g. fine arts)
e.Morality or ethics.
f. Philosophy.
4.Theories of Assessment of Curriculum
(a)
The utilitarian curriculum: This means the curriculum that is useful to the
learner and one conducive to human happiness i.e. promotes the greatest amount
of happiness for the largest possible number of people. Such a curriculum
includes survival skills, social skills, and politics.
(b) A
curriculum for rationality (thinking systematically): It has to produce a
rational mind. In order to cultivate this certain subjects need to be
incorporated i.e. logic, mathematics, philosophy.
(c) A
heritage curriculum: The chief point of education is to bring children into
what exists as a public tradition of shared knowledge i.e. culture which refers
to the intellectual aesthetic, moral and material achievements of mankind.
5. Role of the learner
a. Epistemology
considers the learner as a knowing being and so an educable being(Homo
Educandus)
b. Epistemology
anticipates that a learner be activeboth intrinsically and extrinsically in the pursuit of knowledge
c. Recognition of
authority as a source of knowledge demands an appreciable but open degree of
respect towards the authority of the teacher and learning resource materials.
d. Intuition is valid
source of creativity in Education
6. Learning Environment
Different epistemological systems
call for various learning environments:
A realist epistemology with its emphasis on
sense experience as a primary sourceof
knowingadvocates for a classroom
environment with adequate teaching aidsthat appeal to the senses likephotos, audio visuals, Tactile objects.... By extension it envisions
equipments for practicals as in the case of laboratories and workshops
