CONTEMPORARY
THEMES IN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Aspects of
Education: Aims, Curriculum, Role of Teacher, Role of Learner, Assessment,
Learning Environment, Pedagogy, Educational issues
SELECTED CONTEMPORARY
THEMES IN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
I. Human rights & education
II. Education &democracy (John
Dewey) III. Learning for the 21st century and beyond
I
HUMAN RIGHTS AND EDUCATION (HRE)
HRE: a process whereby people learn about their
rights and the rights of others, within a framework of participatory and
interactive learning.
A. Nature of HRE
·
HRE is concerned with changing attitudes
and behavior, learning new skills, and promoting the exchange of knowledge and
information.
·
HRE is long-term, and aims to provide an
understanding of the issues and equip people with the skills to articulate
their rights and communicate this knowledge to others.
·
HRE includes a varied range of
innovative and effective education programs in the formal, informal and
non-formal sectors.
·
It recognizes the universality and
indivisibility of human rights;
·
Increases knowledge and understanding of
human rights;
·
Empowers people to claim their rights;
assists people to use the legal instruments designed to protect human rights.
·
Uses interactive and participatory
methodology to develop attitudes of respect for human rights;
·
Develops the skills needed to defend
human rights; integrates the principles of human rights into everyday life;
·
Creates a space for dialogue and change;
·
Encourages respect and tolerance.
B. Relationship between Human Rights and
Education
There are
two main aspects to the relationship between human rights and education.
i. Education as a human right: In one
sense the denial of education has in itself come to be seen as the
violation of a basic human right and a synonym for disempowerment.
ii. Curriculum: curriculum and the extent
to which it possesses a human rights orientation.
i. Education as a human right:
UN declaration on Education as Human Rights"States should
strive to eradicate illiteracy and should direct education toward the full
development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms"
ii. Curriculum:
The World
Conference on Human Rights
AllStates and institutions to
include human rights, humanitarian law,
democracy and rule of law as subjects in curricula of all learning institutions in formal and non- formal
settings. Human rights education should include peace, democracy, development
and social justice, as set forth in international and regional human rights
instruments, in order to achieve common understanding and awareness with a view
to strengthening universal commitment to human rights.
C. The role of UNESCO
UNESCO has a
responsibility to promote human rights education, and was a key organizer of
the UN's Decade for Human Rights Education (1995 – 2004) UNESCO attempts to
promote human rights education through:
i)
Development
of national and local capacities for human rights education, through its
co-operation in development projects and programmes at national and
sub-regional levels.
ii)
Elaboration
of learning materials and publications and their translation and adaptation in
national and local languages.
iii)
Advocacy
and Networking Activities.
D. Role of the school in the Pedagogy of
human rights
Schools
offer human rights education as part of their curriculum. Content in this education includes:
i. Curriculum
The theory of human rights.
The practice of human rights.
Contemporary human rights issues.
ii. Forms of delivery
·
Formal
·
Informal
·
Non
formal approach.
iii.
Approaches of Delivery
1. The Perceptual Approach
The learning of human rights ideas
through formal teaching/learning situation. This approach may have three forms:
(a) Human rights training as a subject: This may be offered as a course in
the school curriculum. Time is set aside on the formal school timetable during
which students are given adequate factual knowledge on human rights. Through
theory practice and field visits or excursions students are taught the virtues
of good human rights. Teaching is followed by exams.
(b) Human
rights training through social studies curriculum. The subject of Social
Studies should introduce students to the political, economic and social life of
their community. It imparts on the learners knowledge on the values and
activities that we cherish as a society.
(c) Human rights education through all the subjects of the curriculum. All
the subjects should provide an opportunity for the content training.
2. The Exemplary Approach
- human rights training through
observation, imitation and role modelling.
- This may be informal – (believed
that what we learn informally tends to persist more than what we learn under
normal circumstances).
- Members within the immediate
environment of learners should set good examples to be emulated – should be
beyond reproach. (Do as I say not as I do): Are our teachers good role models?
Why? Salary, Poor living conditions e.t.c No one wants to be a teacher. (Being a teacher as condemnation to
poverty and moral depravity).
3. The Experiential Approach
- Based on theory of Experience as
the best teacher.
- Expose students to opportunities
for active and responsible participation in school and community affairs.
- Positive attitudes and essential
skills are learnt through participation.
- In school, provide a wide range of
activities which encourage working in groups and social interaction.
E. Human rights and quality
education
The changing definition of
quality education as reading, writing and arithmetic has been expanded to
address new challenges such as relevance, universal values, peace and security
and informed decision-making. In this context, quality education has to be
based on a human rights approach, as well as address areas including, but not
limited to, cultural diversity, multilingualism in education, peace and
non-violence, sustainable development and life skills. (UNESCO: Human Rights
Education). Human rights are designed to protect the less powerful from the
whims and caprices of the mighty. They provide protections that have been
judged to work to make societies more equitable, peaceful, and stable
F. Possible
challenges in teaching human rights education
Factual
inaccuracies and insensitivity to the existing religious, ethnic and cultural
diversity of the nation
Perspectives
that encourage bigotry, prejudice and
discrimination towards fellow citizens, especially women, and religious
minorities and other nations.
Omission
of concepts and material that could encourage critical self-awareness among
students.
NB: Schools must respect
human rights by allowing the students the three great freedoms: freedom of choice, freedom of action and
freedom to bear the results of action – that constitute personal
responsibility.
Revision question
1
The changing definition of quality education as reading, writing and
arithmetic has been expanded to address new challenges such as relevance,
universal values, peace and security and informed decision-making. How are
these challenges being addressed in the education system today?
2
To what extent has the content on human rights education
been integrated and infused in the Primary school curriculum?
3
“The denial of education and selective inclusion of human rights
content in the school curriculum amounts to human right abuse as
far as education is concerned”. Discuss
II. EDUCATION AND
DEMOCRACY (JOHN DEWEY: (Oct 20, 1859 – Jn 1,1952)
He was an American
philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been
influential in education and social reform. Dewey was an important early
developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and one of the founders of functional
psychology. He was a major representative of the progressive and progressive populist
philosophies of schooling during the first half of the 20th century in the USA.
In his
advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil
society—as being major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage
experimental intelligence and plurality.
Dewey asserted
that:
·
Complete
democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by
ensuring that there exists a fully formed public opinion, accomplished by
effective communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the
latter being accountable for the policies they adopt.
·
"Democracy
and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of humanity are to my mind
synonymous."
·
Education
and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the school itself
is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place.
·
Students
thrive in an environment where they are allowed to experience and interact with
the curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in
their own learning.
·
The
importance of education is not only as a place to gain content knowledge, but
also as a place to learn how to live.
·
The
purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a
pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of one’s full
potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good.
·
To
prepare one for the future life means to give him command of himself; it means
so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities.
·
Education
and schooling are instrumental in creating social change and reform. Education
is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social consciousness;
and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of this social
consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction.
·
On
educational pedagogy, Dewey argues that the major flaw in this methodology is
the inactivity of the student; within this particular framework, "the
child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial
being who is to be deepened" .
·
For
education to be most effective, content must be presented in a way that allows
the student to relate the information to prior experiences, thus deepening the
connection with this new knowledge.
·
Too
much reliance on the child could be equally detrimental to the learning
process. Dewey advocated for an educational structure that strikes a balance
between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and
experiences of the student.
·
The
present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define
instruction. Dewey became one of the most famous proponents of hands-on
learning or experiential education, arguing that "if knowledge comes from
the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure
knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind"
·
Many
researchers even credit him with the influence of Project Based Learning (PBL)
which places students in the active role of researchers.
·
The
role that the teacher should play within that process: one should not be one to
stand at the front of the room doling out bits of information to be absorbed by
passive students. Instead, the teacher’s role should be that of facilitator and
guide. “The teacher is not in the school to impose certain ideas or to form
certain habits in the child, but is there as a member of the community to
select the influences which shall affect the child and to assist him in
properly responding to these influences”.
·
Thus
the teacher becomes a partner in the learning process, guiding students to
independently discover meaning within the subject area. This philosophy has
become an increasingly popular idea within present-day teacher preparatory
programs.
Revision
questions
1 John Dewey’s ideas are not
practical in view of the overloaded 8 4 4 syllabus. Discuss.
2 Critique the recent
government policy on democratic school governance that seeks to abolish the
prefect system in favour of the student council system by August 2012.
III
LEARNING FOR THE 21ST CENTURY AND BEYOND
(A) GENERAL OUTLOOK
Excerpts from a
report from a new public-private coalition known as the Partnership for 21st
Century Skills articulates a vision of how schools can best prepare students to
succeed in the first decades of the 21st century. Central to the report's
recommendations is a call for schools to focus on six key elements of 21st
century learning:
1. Core Subjects:
The importance of the core subjects identified in any education system. The
challenge here is for schools and policymakers to expand their focus beyond
"basic competency" to understanding the core academic content at much
higher levels.
2. Learning
Skills: They need to know how to use their knowledge and skills-by thinking
critically, applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing information,
comprehending new ideas, communicating, collaborating, solving problems, and
making decisions."
3. 21st Century
Tools: Recognizing that "technology is, and will continue to be, a
driving force in workplaces, communities, and personal lives in the 21st
century," Emphasis should be on the importance of incorporating
information and communication technologies into education from the elementary
grades upwards.
4. 21st Century
Context: should cover experiences that are relevant to students' lives,
connected with the world beyond the classroom, and based on authentic projects.
5. 21st Century Content:
The report's authors believe that certain content essential for preparing
students to live and work in a 21st century world is missing from many state
and local standards (elaborated later here).
6. New
Assessments that Measure 21st Century Skills: today’s assessment remains an
emerging and challenging field that demands further study and innovation.
Recommendations include moving beyond standardized testing as the sole measure
of student learning; balancing traditional tests with classroom assessments to
measure the full range of students' skills; and using technology-based
assessments to deliver immediate feedback.
(B). 21ST CENTURY LEARNING SKILLS AND ICT LITERACY
(a)
Information and communication technology literacy
§ Thinking
and problem-solving skills
§ Critical
thinking and systems thinking
§ Problem
identification, formulation, and solution
§ Creativity
and intellectual curiosity
Using
problem-solving tools (such as spreadsheets, decision support, and design
tools) to manage complexity, solve problems, and think critically, creatively,
and systematically.
(b) Information
and communication skills
§ Information
and media literacy skills
§ Communication
skills
Using
communication, information processing, and research tools (such as word
processing, e-mail, groupware, presentation software, and the Internet) to
access, manage, integrate, evaluate, create, and communicate information.
(c)
Interpersonal and self-direction skills
§ Interpersonal
and collaborative skills
§ Self-direction
§ Accountability
and adaptability
§ Social
responsibility
Using personal
development and productivity tools (such as e-learning, time managers, and
collaboration tools) to enhance productivity and personal development.
C. 21ST
CENTURY CONTENT
(i)
Global awareness
§ Using
21st century skills to understand and address global issues
§ Learning
from and working collaboratively with individuals representing diverse
cultures, religions, and lifestyles in a spirit of mutual respect and open
dialogue in personal, work, and community contexts
§ Promoting
the study of languages other than English as a tool for understanding other
nations and cultures
(ii)
Financial, economic, and business literacy
§ Knowing
how to make appropriate personal economic choices
§ Understanding
the role of the economy and the role of business in the economy
§ Applying
appropriate 21st century skills to function as a productive contributor within
an organizational setting
§ Integrating
oneself within and adapting continually to our nation's evolving economic and
business environment
(iii)
Civic literacy
§ Being
an informed citizen to participate effectively in government
§ Exercising
the rights and obligations of citizenship at local, state, national, and global
levels
§ Understanding
the local and global implications of civic decisions
§ Applying
21st century skills to make intelligent choices as a citizen
(D)
LIFELONG LEARNING IN THE 21ST CENTURY AND BEYOND
Lifelong learning is now recognized
by educators, governing bodies, accreditation organizations, certification
boards, employers, third-party payers, and the general public as one of the
most important competencies that people must possess. Promoting lifelong
learning as continuous, collaborative, self-directed, active, broad in domain,
everlasting, positive and fulfilling, and applicable to one’s profession as
well as all aspects of one’s life has emerged as a major global educational
challenge. Meeting this challenge will require changes in the way teachers
teach and learners learn, as teachers take on a more facilitative role and
learners take more responsibility for setting goals, identifying resources for
learning, and reflecting on and evaluating their learning. Malcolm S. Knowles,
is the “father of adult learning”.
Lifelong Learning: A Definition
defined lifelong learning as “a
continuously supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals...to
acquire all the knowledge, values, skills and understanding they will require
throughout their lifetimes...and to apply them with confidence, creativity, and
enjoyment in all roles, circumstances, and environments.”
This definition emphasizes lifelong
learning as
(a) continuous (it never stops);
(b) supportive (it
isn’t done alone);
(c) stimulating and empowering (it’s self-directed
and active, not passive);
(d) incorporating knowledge, values, skills, and
understanding (it’s more than what we know);
(e) spanning a lifetime
(it happens from our first breath to our last);
(f) applied (it’s not
just for knowledge’s sake);
(g) incorporating confidence, creativity, and
enjoyment (it’s a positive, fulfilling experience); and
(h) inclusive of
all roles, circumstances, and environments (it applies not only to our
chosen profession, but to our entire life) (
4).
Lifelong Learning and Traditional Learning
Lifelong learning is more than adult
education, which often is restricted to providing people with opportunities to
engage in (school-like) learning activities during their adult life.
The challenge for lifelong learning is to
fundamentally rethink learning, teaching, and education for the information age
in an attempt to change mind-sets.
Lifelong learning involves
and engages learners of all ages in acquiring and applying knowledge and skills
in the context of authentic, self-directed problems.
By integrating working and learning,
people learn within the context of their work on real-world problems.
The learner’s involvement in goals setting is a
prerequisite to motivated and self-regulated learning. Goal setting implies the
personal commitment of the learner and is an integral part of learning in life.
In traditional learning, the goals are fixed and
predetermined, providing students with little or no chance of involvement.
Traditional learning tends to motivate
by extrinsic rewards, such as praise from the teacher or others, grades, or
financial compensation. As a result, students can develop a dependency on
praise, leading to feelings of insecurity and non-development of task
motivation.
Learning
flows from a variety of activities, for example, observing how other people do
something, discussing with others, asking someone, looking up information,
trying something for oneself and learning from trial and error, and reflecting
on all the previous activities.
The mental activities involved in
learning may be divided into four categories: (a) social interaction, (b)
processing verbal and other symbolic information, (c) direct experience,
and (d) reflection.
In real
life, learners decide on the type of activities in which to engage, often with
input from others, but the final responsibility is with the learner.
In
traditional learning, most of the regulating is done by the teacher and
educational system. This makes learning look like a neat, step-by-step
procedure, from the beginning of the book to the end, from the start of the
program to the examination. Learning processes in real life are much less
predictable and straightforward.
Traits and Skills of Lifelong Learners
Lifelong learning is largely
self-directed learning, “a process in which learners take the initiative, with
the support and collaboration of others; for increasing self- and social
awareness; critically analyzing and reflecting on their situations; diagnosing
their learning needs with specific reference to competencies they have helped
identify; formulating socially and personally relevant learning goals;
identifying human and material resources for learning; choosing and
implementing appropriate learning strategies; and reflecting on and evaluating
their learning.” Steps to lifelong
learning can be articulated as:
(a) reflection,
(b) setting goals,
(c) assessing knowledge and
skills,
(d) creating a learning plan,
(e) putting the plan into
action, and
(f) evaluating and
refocusing...
An individual’s learning potential
and the development from novice to expert depend on:
the development of expertise in learning to learn (knowing what and how
to learn),
having access to a relevant knowledge base to build on, and
being motivated to learn.
Barriers to Lifelong Learning
Certain obvious issues, such as lack
of motivation, time, and adequate resources, can interfere with an individual’s
success as an independent adult learner. In addition, more subtle problems,
such as a lack of awareness of knowledge deficit, personal reluctance to
change, ambivalence (indecisiveness), and group mentality, can also be
significant barriers to positive educational change.
Promoting lifelong learning as
continuous, collaborative, self-directed, active, broad in domain, everlasting,
positive and fulfilling, and applicable to one’s profession as well as all
aspects of one’s life has emerged as a major global educational challenge.
Meeting this challenge will require changes in the way teachers teach and
learners learn, as teachers take on a more facilitative role and learners take
more responsibility for setting goals, identifying resources for learning, and
reflecting on and evaluating their learning.
Revision Questions
1 Assess the extent
to which our Primary and Secondary schools are compliant with the
requirements of the 21st Century: refer to the content and learning
skills.
2 Compare and
contrast lifelong to trad
